Key Figures in Medieval Europe - An Encyclopedia

["modern translarions in either English or Italian. There JACOPONE DA TODI are, however, modern critical editions of Jean Ferron\u2019s French translation of 1347 (the best of the medieval be Italy\u2019s greatest poet before Dante. The principal type French translations), and of the Middle Scots transla- of verse that Jacopone used is the lauda, a nonliturgical tion of c. 1515. song of praise in vernacular ballad form, although some works in Latin are also attributed to him. Further Reading Details about Jacopone\u2019s life before his religious Editions conversion are sketchy, but it is generally accepted that he was born (as his name implies) in Todi, Umbria, to Burt, Marie Anita. \u201cJacobus de Cessolis: Libellus de moribus a family of the lesser nobility. He received an education hominum et officiis nobilium ac popularium super ludo sca- typical of his time and social class (he may have studied chorum.\u201d Dissertation, University of Texas, Austin, 1957. at the University of Bologna) and then is believed to have practiced the profession of notary in Todi and, in Jacobus de Cessolis. Libellus de ludo scachorum, ed. Ernst K\u00f6pke. his mid-thirties, to have married Vanna di Bernardino di Mittheilungen aus den Handschriften der Ritter-Akademie Guidone, of the counts of Collemedio (or Coldimezzo). zu Brandenburg a. H., 2. Brandenburg a. d. Havel: G. Mat- According to early vitae (lives) of Jacopone, Vanna\u2019s thes, 1879. accidental death at a party devastated him, provoked a profound psychological crisis, and led to his religious Das Schachbuch des Jacobus de Cessolis: Codex Palatinus Lati- conversion in 1268. The precipitating factor in this rapid nus 961, 2 vols. Belser Faksimile Editionen aus der Biblioteca chain of events appears to have been his discovery that Apostolica Vaticana, 74. Z\u00fcrich: Belser Verlag, 1988. Vanna, like many others during this tumultuous period of Italian history, had practiced self-mortification as a Vetter, Ferdinand, ed. Das Schachzabelbuch Kunrats von Am- form of religious penance\u2014in her case, by wearing a menhausen, M\u00f6nchs, und Leutpriesters zu Stein am Rhein, hairshirt under her beautiful and costly outer garb. To the nebst den Schachb\u00fcchern des Jakob von Cessole und des consternation of his family and the disbelief of his fel- Jakob Mannel. Frauenfeld: Huber, 1892. low citizens, Jacopo divested himself of all his worldly goods and habits and became a bezocone, or mendicant Translations Franciscan tertiary (Laude, ed. Mancini, 1974, 151). For the next ten years, he traveled the highways of Umbria, Caxton, William. The Game and Play of Chesse (1474), intro. singing God\u2019s praise and preaching salvation, not in the N. F. Blake. London: Scolar, 1976. Latin of the church but in the language of the people, as was the custom of the Franciscans. In 1278, on his Caxton\u2019s Game and Playe of the Cheese, 1474: A Verbatim Re- second request, he was finally admitted to the order of print of the First Edition with an Introduction by William E. Friars Minor (i.e., the Franciscan order; Casolini 1966, A. Axon. London: Elliot Stock, 1883. 620). He thus became Fra Jacopone\u2014a name that can be translated as Big Jim or Big Jake. The Game of the Cheese by William Caxton: Reproduction in Facsimile with Remarks by Vincent Figgins. London: John In the years following the death of Saint Francis Russell Smith, 1860. (1226), the Franciscans split into two opposing camps. The Spirituals believed in the strict interpretation of Volgarizzamento del libro de\u2019 costumi e degli offizii de\u2019 nobili Francis\u2019s rule, which called for complete poverty; the sopra il giuoco degli scacchi di frate Jacopo da Cessole: Community, sometimes referred to as the Conventuals, Tratto nuovamente da un codice Magliabechiano, ed. Pietro supported a more relaxed interpretation that permitted Marocco. Milan: Dalla Tipografia del Dott. Giulio Ferrario, ownership of property and other material comforts. Ja- 1829. copone sided with the more extreme Spirituals and, as a consequence, found himself locked in the bitter and Critical Studies sometimes dangerous struggle between the two factions. When Boniface VIII became pope, Jacopone allied Buuren, Catherine van, ed. The Buke of the Chess: Edited from himself with the Colonna family, Boniface\u2019s enemies. the Asloan Manuscript (NLS MS 16500). Edinburgh: Scottish Jacopone\u2019s open and virulent opposition to the powerful Text Society, 1997. new pope earned him excommunication and five years of solitary confinement. Collet, Alain, ed. Le Jeu des Eschaz Moralis\u00e9: Traduction de Jean Ferron (1347). Paris: Honor\u00e9 Champion, 1999. While he was in prison, Jacopone wrote many laude. In one of them\u2014Que farai, fra Iacovone? (\u201cWhat will Di Lorenzo, Robert D. \u201cThe Collection Form and the Art of you do, Brother Jacopone?\u201d number 55 in Ageno\u2019s Memory in the Libellus super Ludo Scaccorum of Jacobus de edition, 53 in Mancini\u2019s)\u2014he comments with mordant Cessolis.\u201d Mediaeval Studies, 35, 1973, pp. 205\u2013221. irony on the dire conditions of his imprisonment. We know from two laude\u2014O papa Bonifazio\/io porto el Kaeppeli, Thomas, O.P. \u201cPour la biographie de Jacques de Cessole.\u201d Archivum Fratrum Praedicatorum, 30, 1960, pp. 149\u2013162. Mann, Jill. Chaucer and Medieval Estates Satire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973. Murray, Harold James R. A History of Chess. Oxford: Clarendon, 1913, pp. 537\u2013549. (Reprints, 1961, 1987.) Steven Grossvogel JACOPONE DA TODI (c. 1230 or 1236\u20131306) The Franciscan friar and mystic Jacopone da Todi (Jaco- bus de Benedictis, Jacopus de Tuderto, Jacopo de\u2019 Bene- detti, Giacopone de\u2019 Benedetti) is considered by some to 357","JACOPONE DA TODI amore, \u201cIneffable love,\u201d 91, 92). Misogyny is patently evident in some of his laude (e.g., O femene, guardate, tuo prefazio (\u201cO Pope Boniface, I bring your sentence,\u201d \u201cWomen, beware,\u201d 8, 45), revealing Jacopone to be a number 56 in Ageno and 55 in Mancini) and Lo pastor man of his time. However, there is also evidence that per mio peccato\/posto m\u2019\u00e0 for de l\u2019ovile (\u201cBecause of he gave some thought to the difficult living conditions my sin the shepherd has cast me out of the sheepfold,\u201d of many women in the late thirteenth century (e.g., O number 57 in Ageno and 67 in Mancini)\u2014that Jacopone vita penosa, \u201cO sorrowful life,\u201d 24, 58). One simple yet twice begged the pope for absolution. Although the supremely elegant lauda\u2014Donna del paradiso (\u201cLady pope granted absolution to many in the jubilee year of of Paradise,\u201d 93, 70)\u2014is important because it represents 1300, Jacopone was not among them. In 1303, however, the pinnacle of Jacopone\u2019s poetic art and also because Jacopone received personal liberty and release from it constitutes a crucial step in the evolution of Italian religious censure from Boniface\u2019s more compassionate religious theater: it has four speakers, and many scholars successor as pope, Benedict XI. consider it the first religious drama in Italy. The elderly Jacopone then retired to the convent of Although critics are not in complete agreement re- San Lorenzo in Collazzone, where he died on Christmas garding Jacopone\u2019s authorship of a number of works in eve, 1306. In 1433, his remains were discovered in the Latin, the following have variously been attributed to convent of Santa Maria di Montecristo, and in 1596 him: the famous sequence Stabat mater dolorosa, now his tomb in the crypt of the Franciscan church of San a part of the Roman Catholic liturgy; pithy moral say- Fortunato in Todi was dedicated. Although he has not ings known as the Detti; and Trattato (Treatise), whose been beatified or canonized by the church, Jacopone is subject is mystical union with God. inscribed in the Franciscan martyrology and is popularly referred to and venerated as \u201cblessed\u201d or \u201csaint.\u201d See also Boniface VIII, Pope; Celestine V, Pope Jacopone wrote approximately 100 laude in the Further Reading Umbrian vernacular that express the mystic\u2019s innermost sentiments about the state of his soul and seek to instruct Editions others who are seeking greater closeness to God. Unlike many laude composed by others at this time (which was Contini, Gianfranco, ed. Poeti del Duecento, 2 vols. Milan and the form\u2019s most fertile period), Jacopone\u2019s hymns were Naples: Ricciardi, I960, Vol. 2, pp. 61\u2013166. written not for the general lay public but for his own personal use, and possibly for his Franciscan brothers. Jacopone da Todi. Le laude, ristampa integrale della prima ed- Jacopone\u2019s laude treat a wide range of subjects and izione (1490), ed. Giovanni Papini. Florence: Libreria Editrice present a variety of tones and moods. His important Fiorentina, 1923. themes include the following (for each example, the number in Ageno is followed by the number in Mancini): \u2014\u2014. Le laude secondo la stampa riorentina del 1490, ed. praise of God (e.g., La bontade enfinita, \u201cThe infinite Giovanni Ferri. Bari: Laterza, 1930. goodness,\u201d 79, 21), Christ (Ad l\u2019amor ch\u2019\u00e8 venuto, \u201cTo the Love that came,\u201d 65, 86), and the Virgin Mary (O \u2014\u2014. Laudi, Trattato, e Detti, ed. Franca Ageno. Florence: Le Vergen pi\u00f9 che femina, \u201cO Virgin more than woman,\u201d Monnier, 1953. 2, 32); Saint Francis and the Franciscan ideal of poverty (Povertade enamorata, \u201cBeloved poverty,\u201d 59, 47); \u2014\u2014. Le laude, ed. Luigi Fallacara. Florence: Liberia Editrice the condemnation of all types of secular temptation Fiorentina, 1955. (Guarda che non caggi, amico, \u201cBe careful not to fall, my friend,\u201d 6, 20); detailed descriptions of disease, \u2014\u2014. Laude, ed. Franco Mancini. Bari: Laterza, 1974. death, and dying (Quando t\u2019alegri, \u201cWhen you are Menest\u00f2, Enrico, ed. Le vite antiche di Iacopone da Todi. Flor- glad,\u201d 25, 61); soul-searching self-criticism (Que farai, fra Iacovone? \u201cWhat will you do, Brother Jacopone?\u201d ence: La Nuova Italia, 1977. 55, 53); extreme self-abnegation (O Signor, per corte- \u2014\u2014, ed. Le prose latine attribuite a Jacopone da Todi. Bologna: sia,\/mandame la malsan\u00eca, \u201cO Lord, please infect me with disease,\u201d 48, 81); biting political satire (Que farai, P\u00e0tron, 1979. Pier da Morrone? \u201cWhat will you do, Pier da Morrone?\u201d Ugolini, Francesco A., ed. Laude di Jacopone da Todi tratte da 54, 74); laments on the state of the church (Piange la Ecclesia, \u201cThe church weeps,\u201d 53, 35); descriptions of due manoscritti umbri. Turin: Istituto Editrice Gheroni, 1947. the mystical stare of ecstasy, akin to madness, that the poet entered during his spiritual meditation (Senno me Translations pare e cortesia, \u201cIt seems to be wise and courteous,\u201d 84, 87); and the passionate praise of divine love (O iubilo Jacopone da Todi. The Lauds, trans. Serge Hughes and Elizabeth del core, \u201cO heartfelt joy,\u201d 76, 9; and Sopr\u2019onne lengua Hughes. New York: Paulist, 1982. Underhill, Evelyn. Jacopone da Todi: Poet and Mystic 1228\u20131306: A Spiritual Biography. London: Dent; and NewYork: Dutton, 1919. (Reprint, Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries, 1972.) Studies Ageno, Franca. \u201cModi stilistici delle laudi di Iacopone da Todi.\u201d La Rassegna d\u2019ltalia, 5, 1946, pp. 20\u201329. \u2014\u2014. \u201cMotivi francescani nelle laudi di Iacopone da Todi.\u201d Let- tere Italiane, 2, 1960, pp. 180\u2013184. Apollonio, Mario. Jacopone da Todi e la poetica delle confra- ternite religiose nella cultura preumanistica. Milan: Vita e Pensiero, 1946. Bettarini, Rosanna. Jacopone e il Laudario Urbinate. Florence: Sansoni, 1969. 358","Casolini, Fausta. \u201cIacopone da Todi.\u201d Biblioteca Sanctorum, 7, JACQUES DE VITRY 1966, pp. 617\u2013628. Acre on the coast of Palestine. Jacques arrived in Pal- Convegni del Centro di studi sulla spiritualit\u00e0 medievale: Jaco- estine in 1216 and accompanied the armies of the Fifth pone e il suo tempo (13\u201315 ottobre 1957). Todi: Accademia Crusade at Damietta, 1218\u201321. Weary of constant strife, Tudertina, 1959. Jacques left Acre in 1225 and served Pope Gregory IX in Italy and in the Low Countries over the next three D\u2019Ascoli, Emidio. Il misticismo nei canti spirituali di fra Iaco- years. In 1228, Gregory appointed him cardinal bishop pone da Todi. Recanati: n.p., 1925. of Tusculum, and he remained in Rome until his death. Jacques was buried at the monastery in Oignies, where Dick, Bradley B. \u201cJacopone da Todi and the Poetics of Francis- he had begun his ecclesiastical vocation. can Spirituality.\u201d Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1993. Jacques\u2019s most significant contribution to the history of the church comprised his collections of sermons in- Furia, Paola. \u201cSulla lingua delle \u2018laude\u2019 di Iacopone da Todi.\u201d tended to serve as models for preachers. One collection, Cultura e Scuola, 28(110), 1989, pp. 44\u201349. Sermones dominicales (de tempore), gives three sermons for each of the Sundays of the ecclesiastical calendar; Katainen, V. Louise. \u201cJacopone da Todi, Poet and Mystic: A Sermones de sanctis gives 115 sermons for saints\u2019 days Review of the History of the Criticism.\u201d Mystics Quarterly, and special feasts; Sermones communes et feriales gives 22, 1996, pp. 46\u201357. twenty-seven sermons for daily use; Sermones vulgares (or ad status) gives seventy-four sermons addressing Lograsso, A. H. \u201cJacopone da Todi.\u201d In New Catholic Encyclo- social classes and religious groups. The first small col- pedia. New York: McGraw Hill, 1967. lection of such model sermons was compiled only the generation before by Alain de Lille, and Jacques went McGinn, Bernard. The Flowering of Mysticism: Men and Women far beyond them with his collections, particularly in in the New Mysticism (1200\u20131350). The Presence of God: their homiletic illustrations, or exempla, which provide A History of Western Mysticism, 3. New York: Crossroad, a wealth of amusing and instructive anecdotes. 1998. Jacques also composed a biography of Marie Menest\u00f2, Enrico, ed. Atti del convegno storico iacoponico in d\u2019Oignies (1213) that helped gain papal approval for occasione del 750 anniversario della nascita di Iacopone the b\u00e9guine movement and has since become a valu- da Todi: Todi, 29\u201330 novembre 1980. Florence: La Nuova able historical source for the early days of that con- Italia, 1981. troversial movement. Several of his letters date from his sojourn in Palestine (up to 1221), and his Historia Neri, Ferdinando. \u201cLa pazzia e la poesia di Jacopone da Todi.\u201d Hierosolymitana abbreviata in three books recounts not In Saggi di Letteratura Italiana, Francese, Inglese. Naples: only the history of Jerusalem during the Crusades but n.p., 1936. also, and perhaps more importantly, the new and often controversial religious movements of the day, such as Parodi, Ernesto Giacomo. \u201cII Giullare di Dio.\u201d Il Marzocco, the b\u00e9guines, the Humiliati, and even the Franciscans 19(26), 1915. (Reprinted in Poeti antichi e moderni: Studi (at least in their more colorful manifestations), as they critici. Florence: Sansoni, 1923, pp. 129\u2013141.) relate to the renewal of the church and to the success of its mission. Peck, George T. The Fool of God: Jacopone da Todi. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1980. Although Jacques\u2019s religious vocation took the more traditional form of an Augustinian canon, both his sym- Petrocchi, Giorgio. Scrittori religiosi del Duecento. Florence: pathies for the spiritual revival of his day and his talents Sansoni, 1974. as an extraordinary preacher place him firmly in the mainstream of the life of the church in the 13th century. Russo, Luigi. \u201cJacopone da Todi mistico-poeta.\u201d In Studi sul Due e Trecento. Rome: Edizioni Italiane, 1946, pp. 31\u201357. See also Alain de Lille; Marie d\u2019Oignies Sapegno, Natalino. Frate Jacopone. Turin: Baretti, 1926. Further Reading Toschi, Paolo. Il valore attuale ed eterno della poesia di Jacopone. Jacques de Vitry. The Historia occidentalis of Jacques de Vitry, Todi: Res Tudertinae, 1964. Triplo, Gary. \u201cMysticism and the ed. John F. Hinnebusch. Fribourg: University Press, 1972. Elements of the Spiritual Life in Jacopone da Todi.\u201d Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, 1994. \u2014\u2014. Lettres de Jacques de Vitry, 1160\/70\u20131240, \u00e9v\u00eaque de Ungaretti, Giuseppe. \u201cSulla vita di Iacopone da Todi e la poesia Saint-Jean d\u2019Acre, ed. R.B.C. Huygens. Leiden: Brill, 1960. di Iacopone da Todi.\u201d In Invenzione della poesia moderna: Lezioni brasiliane di letteratura, ed. Paola Montefoschi. \u2014\u2014. Sermones vulgares. In Analecta nouissima spicilegii Naples: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 1984, pp. 41\u201368. Solesmensis, altera continuatio, ed. Jean Baptiste Pitra. 2 vols. Paris: Typis Tusculanis, 1885\u201388, Vol. 2. V. Louise Katainen Funk, Philipp. Jakob von Vitry: Leben und Werke. Leipzig: JACQUES DE VITRY Teubner, 1909. ca. 1160\/70\u20131240) Mark Zier The son of a wealthy bourgeois family in Vitry-en- Perthios near Reims, Jacques studied in Paris at a time when Peter the Chanter, one of the most celebrated preachers of his day, was master of the cathedral school. In 1211, he entered the monastery of Augustinian regu- lar canons dedicated to St. Nicolas in Oignies, not far from Cambrai. Over the next five years, he was close to the lay religious group known as the b\u00e9guines, whose leader was Marie d\u2019Oignies. During this same period, he became a preacher of crusades, first against the Al- bigensians in 1213 and then against the infidels in the Holy Land in 1214. His preaching won him the see of 359","JAIME I OF ARAG\u00d3N-CATALONIA a crusade to help Latin Byzantium. However, Al-Azraq plunged Valencia into a decade of countercrusade JAIME (JAUME) I OF (1247\u20131258), put down piecemeal again by Jaime in ARAG\u00d3N-CATALONIA (1208\u20131276) a new papal crusade. Jaime continually organized his Valencian realm as his original invasion progressed, Jaime (Jaume) I \u201cthe Conqueror,\u201d count-king of the down to his last years of life. Some of his massive land realms (regnes) of Arag\u00f3n-Catalonia, was the leading distribution is recorded in his detailed Repartiment. figure of the Reconquest in eastern Spain, founder of His Mud\u00e9jar treaties set up semi-autonomous Muslim his realms\u2019 greatness in the western Mediterranean, and enclaves throughout Valencia, on a scale unmatched an innovative contributor to Europe\u2019s administrative, elsewhere in Spain, forming a colonialist society with educational, legal, and literary evolution. The only son a thin grid of Christians dominating until the following of Pedro II (Pere I of Catalonia), \u201cthe Catholic,\u201d he was century. He brought in more Muslims, and also attracted born in a townsman\u2019s home at Montpellier, the principal- Jewish settlers from Occitania and North Africa, as part ity inherited by his half-Byzantine mother, Marie. His of a planned program. He set up Valencia as a separate father, hero of the battle of Las Navas (1212), which kingdom with its own law code, money, parliament, opened Almohad Islam to Jaime\u2019s later conquests, died and administration. at Muret (1213) at battle in the Albigensian crusade in Occitania. Simon de Montfort, leader of the Albigensian Meanwhile, Jaime signed away all but his coastal crusade, kidnapped Jaime and held him at Carcassonne. rights in Occitania to Louis IX of France in the treaty Jaime was rescued by Pope Innocent III, who then of Corbeil (1258). His peninsular politics, notably with placed his realms under Templar protection. The orphan Alfonso X of Castile, are only beginning to be explored Jaime\u2014his mother had died at Rome\u2014was brought up in depth. Both kings were ambitious to absorb Navarre; from his sixth to his ninth years at the Templar head- they confronted one another as champions, respectively, quarters castle of Monz\u00f3n in Arag\u00f3n. By the time he was of the Guelph and Ghibelline movements in the Mediter- almost ten, he had begun his personal rule (1217), and ranean, especially after Jaime married his heir, Pedro, had captained armies in a league for order\u2014the begin- to the Hohenstaufen heiress, Constance of Sicily. In ning of his intermittent domestic wars with refractory 1265\u20131266 Jaime helped Alfonso recover the Murcian nobles (particularly in 1227 and 1273\u20131275). kingdom from Mud\u00e9jar rebellion, an adventure counted as Jaime\u2019s third conquest of an Islamic power. From that In 1225 Jaime led an abortive crusade against Pe- time on, the confrontational character of their mutual \u00f1\u00edscola in Islamic Valencia. Four years later he mounted policies turned to friendship. a successful amphibious invasion of Mallorca, adding Minorca in 1232 and Ibiza in 1235 as tributaries. Or- Jaime also negotiated with the Mongols, who wanted ganizing his Balearic conquests as a separate kingdom allies against Islam, in 1267. In 1269 he finally mounted of Mallorca, Jaime embarked on a nearly fifteen-year his long-awaited crusade to the Holy Land, but aban- campaign to conquer Almohad Valencia piecemeal doned his fleet due to storms (his own excuse) or to (1232\u20131245). Only three major cities fell to siege reluctance to leave his mistress (the charge by his en- (Burriana, Valencia, Biar), with consequent expulsion emies). After a brief estrangement from his heir, Pedro, of Muslims, and J\u00e1tiva succumbed to a combination of and a bitter baronial revolt led by Jaime\u2019s bastard son siege, feint, and negotiated arrangements from 1239 to Ferran Sanxis, the conqueror had a moment of triumph 1248 and on to 1252. One set-piece battle was fought again on the world stage. Pope Gregory X summoned in 1237 at Puig; and Valencia surrendered in 1238. him to the Second Ecumenical Council of Lyons in 1274, Flanking naval power supplied Jaime\u2019s war and fended particularly for his expertise in crusading; Jaime devoted off Tunisian help. Alfonso X of Castile was conquering twenty chapters of his autobiography to recounting northward out of Murcia, and the two kings narrowly his reception and activities there. In 1276 the worst of averted war over southernmost Valencia by the treaty Valencia\u2019s Mud\u00e9jar revolts erupted, a sustained effort of Almizra in 1244. with North African and Granadan help, to recover the land. Jaime fell ill while fighting at Alcira (20 July 1276) Historians have followed Jaime\u2019s own account in end- and died at Valencia (27 July). ing this crusade (actually a series of papal crusades) in 1245, followed by Mud\u00e9jar revolts in the 1250s, 1260s, He abdicated on his deathbed, to take the vows and and 1270s. It now seems clear that he patched up a truce habit of a Cistercian monk, a not uncommon deathbed with Al-Azraq, the last leader in the field, to take ad- piety then. The Mud\u00e9jar war required his burial at Va- vantage of his last opportunity to recover Provence. He lencia; only in May 1278 could his successor inter him rushed north, personally led a raid to kidnap the heiress properly at Poblet monastery near Tarragona. When of Provence at Marseilles, was foiled by a counterraid mobs sacked his tomb during the nineteenth-century by Charles of Anjou, protested noisily to the pope, Carlist wars, his body was removed to Tarragona ca- and withdrew. Hailed as a hero of Christendom for his thedral, and only recently has been returned to Poblet. conquest of Valencia at this lowest point of Europe\u2019s crusading movement, in 1246 Jaime rashly announced 360","At his death the troubadour Matieu de Carsin hailed JAIME II him as exalter of the cross \u201cbeyond all kings here or overseas,\u201d another Arthur of Camelot. His younger con- describes him as taller than most, with athletic frame temporary Ram\u00f3n Muntaner records that people called and reddish-blond hair, a man cordial to everyone and him \u201cthe Good King\u201d; another chronicler records his adventurously bold. His skeletal remains confirm the title as \u201cJames the Fortunate,\u201d founder of two thousand physical details, and a portrait in Alfonso X\u2019 s Cantigas churches. A myth grew that he had co-founded the Mer- de Santa Mar\u00eda shows him at around sixty, majestic, cedarian ransomer order. A later movement to canonize with his short beard gone white. him did not receive ecclesiastical encouragement. See also Alfonso X, El Sabio, King of Castile and Jaime had his dark side, however. He could be cruel Le\u00f3n; Louis IX in warfare after the manner of the times. He cut out the tongue of the bishop of Girona in 1246, for which he Further Reading suffered papal thunders and public penance. And he was notoriously a womanizer. His guardians had married Belenguer Cebri\u00e0, E. Jaume I a trav\u00e9s de la hist\u00f2ria. 2 vols. him in 1221 to an older woman, Le\u00f3nor, the sister of Valencia, 1984. Fernando III of Castile, for reasons of state. When he was able to consummate the union, Jaime produced his Burns, R. I. Society and Documentation in Crusader Valencia. son and first heir, Alfonso (who died in 1260). Rome Princeton, N.J., 1985. annulled the marriage in 1229, and in 1235 he married the true love of his life, Violante, the daughter of King \u2014\u2014, ed. The Worlds of Alfonso the Learned and James the Bela IV of Hungary, by whom he had two sons and two Conqueror: Intellect and Force in the Middle Ages. Princeton, daughters. She died in 1251, and in 1255 Jaime mar- N.J., 1985. ried Teresa Gil de Vidaure, by whom he had two sons. Historians often count Teresa as a mistress, but Pope Jaime I y su \u00e9poca: X Congr\u00e9s d\u2019hist\u00f2ria de la Corona d\u2019Arag\u00f3. Gregory X regarded the marriage as firm in his thunders 5 vols. in 2. Zaragoza, 1979\u201382. against Jaime\u2019s efforts to divorce her (1274) after he had relegated her to a nunnery in Valencia. Jaime also had Tourtoulon, C. de. \u00c9tudes sur la maison de Barcelone: Jacme ler seven formal or contract mistresses and at least five il- le Conqu\u00e9rant, roi d\u2019Arag\u00f3n. 2 vols. Montpellier, 1863\u201367. legitimate children. This led some moderns to dub him Rev. in trans, by Teodoro L\u2019orente. Don Jaime I el Conquis- \u201cthe Henry VIII of Spain.\u201d tador. 2 vols. Valencia, 1874. Jaime promulgated the first Romanized law code Robert I. Burns, S. J. of general application, the furs of Valencia (1261), as well as the fueros of Arag\u00f3n (1247), the L\u00e9rida Costums JAIME II (1267\u20131327) (1258), and the Costums de la mar (ca. 1240). Besides founding the papal University of Valencia (1245), he Second son of Pedro III (r. 1276\u20131285) and Constanza reorganized the statutes of the University of Montpel- de Hohenstaufen, Jaime II was an amalgam of the stub- lier to make it the first effective royal university in born courage of his grandfather Jaime I (1213\u20131276) Europe. He fully supported the mendicant movement and a keen and crafty mind that provided a clear ruling and its Arabic\/Hebrew language schools, including template for his grandson Pedro IV (1336\u20131387). With the Dominicans\u2019 1263 Disputation of Barcelona with his father\u2019s acquisition of Sicily in 1283, Jaime as a teen- the Jews. By his prodigal use of J\u00e1tiva paper he elabo- ager became a pivotal figure in central Mediterranean rated the first substantial archives in Europe after the affairs, serving as king of Sicily from 1285 to 1291. In papacy\u2019s, leaving a remarkable record of life and ad- this post, he developed a ruling style which combined ministration in his registers. He promoted commerce unbridled force with patient diplomacy. Holding at in many ways, particularly by his trade monopoly at bay his family\u2019s archenemy, Charles of Anjou, by the Alexandria, his tributary control of H. afs.id Tunis, the development of a strong fleet, Jaime established such North Africa\u2013Valencia\u2013Mallorca\u2013Occitania trade, and an efficient Sicihan government that, according to one his monetary policy. He presided over a literary court chronicler, the island population \u201cgrew prosperous in (Bernat Desclot and the troubadour Cerver\u00ed de Girona a very short time.\u201d stand out) and contributed his Llibre dels feyts, the only autobiography by a medieval king except for his great- With the death of his brother, the ineffectual Alfonso great-grandson\u2019s imitation, to European letters. Done by III (1285\u20131291), Jaime quickly realized that far greater collaborators at J\u00e1tiva in 1244 (the first three hundred power was open to him on the Iberian mainland than as chapters) and at Barcelona in 1274, it is a lively personal Sicilian ruler. Shamefully deserting his island vassals, account of himself as a military Roland or Cid. Desclot the new Arag\u00f3nese sovereign began transforming old enemies into new friends. Making peace with Charles of Anjou and sealing the new relationship by marrying his old foe\u2019s daughter in 1295, Jaime then rapidly mended fences with Pope Boniface VIII (papacy 1294\u20131303), becoming the standard bearer and protector of the pa- pacy in exchange for conquest rights to Sardinia and Corsica. The changed reality of this realpolitik was especially dramatic in regard to Sicily, which chose Jaime\u2019s younger brother, Fadrique, as its sovereign 361","JAIME II ies. His most far-reaching action in this regard was the Privilege of Union (1319), which affirmed \u201cwhoever was and then supported their new lord in a war of survival the king of Arag\u00f3n would also be the king of Valencia with his sibling (1296\u20131298) that guaranteed at least and the count of Barcelona.\u201d To further this unity, Jaime temporarily Sicilian independence. completely reformed royal government, dividing it into such departments as the chancellery and the treasury, The combination of specifically applied force and and staffing these with university educated specialists wide-ranging diplomatic activity marked all of Jaime\u2019s such as the chancellor, treasurer, and master of accounts. subsequent forays into foreign affairs. Maintaining From this pool of curial talent, he chose advisers who, generally peaceful relations with Castile, he used the along with trusted nobles and clergy, constituted the death of his cousin, Sancho IV of Castile (1284\u20131296) royal council. to block the accession of the young heir, Fernando IV (1296\u20131312), in favor of another contender for the The wholesale administrative changes that accompa- Castilian crown, hoping to gain the pivotal district of nied Jaime\u2019s accession enraged his conservative realms Murcia in the process. Though this conspiracy proved of Arag\u00f3n and Valencia, which had spent the last three unsuccessful, Jaime persistently pressed his claim to decades in stamping out royal \u201cinnovations\u201d and in le- Murcia. By 1304, the Castilians relented partially and gally subordinating the crown to baronial control. Rather granted Jaime the right to conquer Almer\u00eda and its than using military means to confront this insurgency surroundings. Since the region was still under Muslim (occasionally bound together as the Uni\u00f3n), the king, in control, an Arag\u00f3nese attack of the city brought over- August 1301, used the very laws forced on his ancestors whelming response from the Granada emir, Muh.ammad to charge his rebellious barons with treason and did so III (1302\u20131309) and this effectively ended Arag\u00f3nese before the unionist functionary, the Justicia de Arag\u00f3n. military operations in Andalusia until the era of the Despite this temporary triumph, Jaime knew he could Catholic kings. not fully defeat the barons and admitted as much in the Declaration of the General Privilege (1325), in which Despite these aftershocks of the great Reconquest, he formally accepted many of the legal restrictions the events soon convinced Jaime that much greater geo- Uni\u00f3n had previously imposed on the crown. political prizes awaited him in the Mediterranean than on the Iberian Peninsula. When the Sicilian war ended Jaime II died on 2 November 1327. He married four in 1302, mercenary forces (almog\u00e1vares) who had times: to Isabel of Castile (1291), Blanche of Anjou served Fadrique were out of a job. Accepting an offer (1295), Maria de Lusignan (1317), and Elisenda de for employment from the Byzantine emperor Michael Montcada (1322). The most fecund of these unions was IX (1295\u20131320), the company was soon thrown out the second, which produced ten children, including the of work again by a premature peace with the Ottoman princes Jaime, Alfonso (the eventual successor), and Turks and then went into business for itself by ravaging Juan (late archbishop of Tarragona). To later histori- much of the central Mediterranean and establishing a ans, Jaime was known as \u201cthe Just\u201d or \u201cthe Justiciar\u201d loose colonial structure, the Duchy of Athens, which because he would allow no one but himself to \u201crender remained in Catalan hands until 1388. Indirectly thrust verdicts for disputes.\u201d Despite these judicial sobriquets, into Mediterranean affairs by this \u201cCatalan Vengeance,\u201d his greatest accomplishment was the transformation of Jaime bided time until 1322 when he attempted to make the Crown of Arag\u00f3n from a solely Iberian to a strong good his claim to Sardinia with extensive military opera- Mediterranean power. tions that, however, never brought the island under his control and ultimately consumed the very Barcelona See also Pedro III, King of Arag\u00f3n; dynasty itself when in 1410 the last heir to the dynasty Sancho IV, King of Castile died putting down yet another Sardinian uprising. De- spite this lingering Sardinian debacle, Jaime\u2019s reign had Further Reading ushered in a new economic era in the Mediterranean that made the Catalans, with bases in Athens, Sardinia, the Abulafia D., A Mediterranean Emporium: The Catalan Kingdom North African litoral, and the Balearics, a strong rival of Majorca. Cambridge, 1994. to Pisa and Genoa for market dominance. Archivo de la Corona de Arag\u00f3n, Canciller\u00eda real, Regs. 90\u2013350; Jaime also played a significant role in domestic Pergaminos, Carp. 128\u2013214. affairs. Trained in Sicilian politics, which gave much greater power to the sovereign, Jaime brought to east- Kagay D. J. \u201cRebellion on Trial: The Arag\u00f3nese Union and Its ern Spain not a revolution, but a steady manipulation Uneasy Connection to Royal Law, 1265\u20131301,\u201d Journal of of legal and constitutional norms. Under his tutelage, Legal History 18, no. 3(1997): 30\u201343. royal government became steadily more efficient and productive. Quickly realizing the disparate nature of Mart\u00ednez Ferrando, J. E. \u201cJaime II,\u201d in Els Descendants de Pere his realms, the king soon moved to set up structures el Gran. Barcelona, 1980. that firmly tied the ruling center to its many peripher- Salavert, V. Cerdena y la expansion mediterr\u00e1nea de la Corona de Arag\u00f3n, 1297\u20131314. Madrid, 1956. Donald J. Kagay 362","JAN VAN BOENDALE (ca. 1280\u20131351) JAN VAN BOENDALE A Brabantine poet and a native of Tervuren, a small town on technical aspects of poetry, but a declaration by a between Leuven and Brussels, Jan van Boendale spent self-conscious author concerning the cultural responsi- most of his working life as secretary to the aldermen bilities inherent in authorship. Here, Boendale presents of the city of Antwerp. In this position he dealt with all his ideas on, among other topics, the prerequisites of levels of society, an experience that affected his writing. true authorship, the value of literary tradition, and the His oeuvre consists of some seven works, although some relationship between genre and fictionality. of those texts cannot definitively be attributed to him. Boendale wrote several versions of some of his works, Between 1330\u20131334 Boendale wrote his Jans mainly updates of his historiography texts, which were teesteye (Jans testimony), a dialogue in some 4100 lines then dedicated to other patrons. of coupled rhyme. In this polemic-didactic dialogue the participants are \u201cJan,\u201d Boendale\u2019s alter ego, and His first work, the Brabantsche yeesten (Brabantine \u201cWouter,\u201d probably a fictitious person, playing the role Deeds), is a chronicle in coupled rhyme, dealing with of the pupil. The topic of discussion is grosso modo, the the history of the Brabantine ducal house in the period quality of life in their time. Jan takes a positive, but not from ca. 600 to ca. 1350. This chronicle is divided in uncritical position; Wouter\u2019s position is negative: he is five parts (\u201cbooks\u201d), of which the first four describe the the \u201cpraiser of times past\u201d (laudator temporis acti). history of Brabant before Boendale\u2019s own lifetime, and the fifth is devoted to the three dukes contemporaneous Shortly after 1340 Boendale wrote Van den derden with him: Jan I (d. 1294), Jan II (d. 1312), and Jan III Eduwaert, describing in 2,018 lines the role of the Eng- (d. 1355). This voluminous work of some 16,000 lines lish king Edward III (d. 1377) in continental European was not written in one effort; the first version dates from politics. The poem was not only a tribute to this king, ca. 1316, the fifth from 1347, and a sixth version may whom Boendale probably had met in person; it was first have been written around 1351, each one providing an and foremost a panegyric to Duke Jan III of Brabant, an updated version of the history of the duchy. This does ally of the English king at the outbreak of the Hundred not imply that Boendale was completely original in Year\u2019s War in 1337. his chronicle. Large parts of his text were copied from the Spiegel bistoriael (Mirror of History) by Jacob van Boendale\u2019s authorship of two poems is disputed. Maerlant\u2014whom Boendale elsewhere called \u201cthe father The first is the very short Hoemen ene stat regeren sal of all Dutch poets\u201d\u2014and the anonymous Chronica de (18 lines, before ca. 1350), a poem advising officials origine ducum Brabantiae (Chronicle of the Origins on \u201chow to rule a town.\u201d The poem is known in several of the Duchy of Brabant); only when writing about his versions, some written on the tie-beams of city halls, own lifetime is Boendale original. including those in Brussels and Emmerich. The oldest known version is incorporated in a manuscript of Der After completing a second version of the Brabantsche leken spiegel (Brussels, Koninklijke Bibliotheek, manu- yeesten in 1318 he used the text in 1322 as the source script no. 15.658, fol. 122r). for a very short rhyme-chronicle, the so-called Korte kroniek van Brabant (374 lines). He later wrote a second The second disputed poem is called the Boec van version of this text too, in the years 1332\u20131333. der wraken [The book of punishment (5,870 lines, ca. 1346)]. Reacting to the conflict between Pope Clemens But between 1325\u20131330, he composed an extensive VI and the German emperor Louis of Bavaria, in which didactic poem of more than 20,000 lines, called Der he chose the imperial side, Boendale has written a leken spiegel (The Layman\u2019s Mirror). In using this pamphlet-like poem around the theme of God\u2019s punish- title, Boendale explicitly addresses an audience of ment for human sinfulness, with strong eschatological non-readers (illiterati), offering them an encyclopedic overtones. A second, updated version was written in text, dealing with cosmology, the nature of human body 1351. and soul, the history of the Old and New Testaments, church history, devotional practice, etc. The poem is Typical of Boendale\u2019s historiographic works is his structured according to the Heilsgeschichte (divine plan) orientation on Brabantine history, apparent in the recur- and divided into four books. Books one and two deal rent origo-motive (the tracing back of the origin of the with God\u2019s Creation, the structure of the universe, and ducal house to the Trojans) and the reditus-motive (the the course of history; book three is concerned with the dukes of Brabant as the true inheritors of Charlemagne). present, and book four with the future. Der leken spiegel Boendale\u2019s didactic perspective revolves around the contains the oldest poetical treatise in Dutch: in book theme of the ghemeyn oirbaer (\u201cthe common good\u201d), three, chapter fifteen, Boendale presents, under the title which is the basis for his social criticism. Boendale Hoe dichters dichten sullen ende wat si hantieren sullen criticizes clergy, aristocracy, and commoners alike, but (How writers should write and what they should pay at- evidently tends to identify himself with his urban envi- tention to), his views on literature. This is not a treatise ronment. This somewhat intermediate position shows itself clearly in the dedications of his poems. Though often explicitly intended for a broad audience of laymen, many of the manuscripts contain dedications to members 363","JAN VAN BOENDALE verkenningen van Jans teesteye en de Lekenspiegel. Leyden: Dimensie, 1998. of the aristocracy, including Willem van Bornecolve, Lucas, H.S. \u201cEdward III and the poet chronicler John Boendale.\u201d alderman of Antwerp, Rogier van Leefdale, viscount Speculum 12 (1937): 367\u2013369. of Brussels, and Duke Jan III of Brabant. Reynaert, Joris. \u201cEthiek en \u2018filosofie\u2019 voor leken: de Dietsche doctrinale.\u201d In Joris Reynaert, et al. Wat is wijsheid? Lek- Jan van Boendale is an example of what is called the enethiek in de Middelnederlandse letterkunde. Amsterdam: Antwerp School, a designation for the explosive literary Prometheus, 1994, pp. 199\u2013214 and 415\u2013419. output of Antwerp in the first half of the fourteenth cen- Snellaert, Ferdinand A., ed. Nederlandsche gedichten uit de tury. When cities began to emerge as centers of literary veertiende eeuw van Jan Boendale, Hein van Aken en anderen activity in the late thirteenth century, Antwerp was the naar het Oxfordsch handschrift. Brussels, Hayez, 1869 [Jans third most culturally important town of Brabant (after teesteye; Boec van der Wraken; Melibeus]. Brussels and Leuven). In Antwerp this increased literary Van Anrooij, Wim, ed. \u201cHoemen ene stat regeren sal. Een vroege activity resulted in a rather homogeneous group of texts, stadstekst uit de Zuidelijke Nederlanden.\u201d Spiegel der Lettern which included, besides Boendale\u2019s works, the Sidrac, 34 (1992): 139\u2013157. the Melibeus, and the Dietsche doctrinale. The Sidrac Van Anrooij, Wim. \u201cRecht en rechtvaardigheid binnen de Ant- is an extensive encyclopedic and didactic dialogue in werpse School.\u201d In Reynaert, Joris et al. Wat is wijsheid? Lek- prose, translated from French in 1318. The Melibeus enethiek in de Middelnederlandse letterkunde. Amsterdam: (1342) is a translation of the Liber consolationis et con- Prometheus, 1994, pp. 149\u2013163 and 399\u2013405. silii (Book of Consolation and Counsel) by Albertanus Van Eerden, Peter C. \u201cEschatology in the Boec van der wraken.\u201d of Brescia (d. after 1246). In 3,771 lines, a moralizing In Werner Verbeke, Daniel Verhelst, and Andries Welkenhuy- dialogue between allegorical characters is presented. sen, ed. The Use and Abuse of Eschatology in the Middle Ages. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1988, pp. 425\u2013440. The Dietsche doctrinale (German Doctrine 1345) is Van Tol, J. F. J., ed. Het boek van Sidrac in de Nederlanden. another translation of a misogynistic didactic text by Amsterdam: H. J. Paris, 1936. Albertanus of Brescia, De amore et dilectione Dei et Willems, Jan Frans, ed. De Brabantsche yeesten of rymkronyk proximi et aliorum rerum et de forma vitae (On God\u2019s van Braband. 2 vols. Brussels: Hayez, 1839, 1843 and J. H. love...). This work of some 6,650 lines, divided in three Bormans, De Brabantsche yeesten, of rijmkronijk van Bra- \u201cbooks,\u201d deals with love and friendship, virtues and band, vol. 3. Brussel, Hayez, 1869 [with the Korte kronike vices, and closes with an interesting section on the na- van Brabant]. ture of God. It thus presents a compendium of laymen\u2019s ethics. The thematic similarities between the Melibeus, Geert H. M. Claassens the Dietsche doctrinale, and Boendale\u2019s oeuvre\u2014that history is a framework for laymen\u2019s ethics as well as JAN VAN RUUSBROEC (1293\u20131381) the central concept of the \u201ccommon good\u201d\u2014has some- times led to the attribution of these two texts to Jan van Jan van Ruusbroec, a Brabantine mystic, was born in Boendale. 1293 in the village of Ruisbroek southeast of Brussels. When he was eleven, he went to live in the city with a See also Jacob van Maerlant relative, John (Jan) Hinckaert (d. 1350\/1358), who was a canon of the collegiate church of St. Gudula. The boy Further Reading attended the school attached to the church, and after the required studies, he was ordained a priest in 1317 Avonds, Piet. \u201cGhemeyn Oirbaer. Volkssoevereiniteit en politieke and became a chaplain there. In Brussels he began to ethiek in Brabant in de veertiende eeuw.\u201d In Reynaert, Joris compose his first treatises on mystical life, among which et al. Wat is wijsheid? Lekenethiek in de Middelnederlandse were some of his most important writings: Die geeste- letterkunde. Amsterdam: Prometheus, 1994, pp, 164\u2013180 like brulocht (The Spiritual Espousals) and Vanden and 405\u2013411. blinkenden steen (The Sparkling Stone). Gerritsen, Willem P., et al. \u201cA fourteenth-century vernacular The Spiritual Espousals is the most famous and most poetics: Jan van Boendale\u2019s \u2018How Writers Should Write\u2019.\u201d In translated of his works. It describes the entire path to a Erik Kooper, ed. Medieval Dutch Literature in its European mystic life from a humble beginning to complete devel- Context. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. opment and indicates the risks and possible deviations at 245\u2013260. each stage. According to Ruusbroec, the essence of mys- tical life is the direct and passive experience of God. To De Vries, Matthijs, ed. Der leken spieghel, leerdicht van den jare describe the different stages, he uses three terms in the 1330, door Jan Boendale, gezegd Jan de Clerc, schepenklerk Espousals which recur in all his treatises: dat werkende te Antwerpen. 3 vols. Leyden, Du Mortier, 1844\u20131848. leven (the active life), dat innighe leven (the interior life), and dat schouwende leven (the contemplative life). Each Heymans, Jo, ed. Van den derden Eduwaert. Nijmegen,Alfa, 1983. is a way to live one\u2019s relation with God. In the active life, Heymans, Jo. \u201cGeschiedenis in Der Leken Spiegel.\u201d In Geert R. love manifests itself in the exercise of virtue; in the inte- rior life, a new dimension of love is discovered: to adhere W. Dibbets and Paul W. M. Wackers, ed. Wat duikers van is intimately to the Beloved; finally, in the contemplative dit! Opstellen voor W.M.H. Hummelen. Wijhe: Quarto, 1989, pp. 25\u201340. Jonckbloet, Willem J.A., ed. Die Dietsche Doctrinale, leerdicht van den jare 1345, toegekend aan Jan Deckers. The Hague, 1842. Kinable, Dirk, Facetten van Boendale. Literair-historische 364","life, the loving person is elevated above him- or herself JAN VAN RUUSBROEC and introduced into the most intimate life of God, the love of the Father, Son and Spirit in one divine being. middel (without intermediary), and sonder differencie Ruusbroec strongly emphasizes the point that, at each (without difference), he tries to explain to his friends level, the higher life does not neglect, let alone reject, that\u2014though the distinction between Creator and crea- the lower life. A person who has discovered the interior ture is eternal\u2014there is a moment in mystical life when life should not despise the active life. And, one who has nothing of the opposition between the beloved \u201cyou\u201d been introduced into the contemplative life should not and the loving \u201cI\u201d is left. disdain God nor active service to his neighbor. Just as the interior life does not replace the need for an active In 1381 Ruusbroec died in Groenendaal at the age of life, but inspires and purifies it, the contemplative life eighty-eight, but his works have survived him. During enhances and elevates both. his lifetime, some were translated from the Brabantine Middle Dutch into High German for the Gottesfreunde Whereas the Espousals is famous for its all-encom- (Friends of God) in Strasbourg and Basle, and into Latin. passing view, Ruusbroec\u2019s small treatise, The Sparkling About the middle of the sixteenth century his Opera Om- Stone, is a masterpiece of conciseness. It briefly de- nia (entire works) were translated into Latin by a Carthu- scribes the three lives of the Espousals and then concen- sian in Cologne, Laurentius Surius (1523\u20131578). This trates on the highest of the three, the contemplative life. was the basis for many later translations into modern languages, including German and Spanish. Ruusbroec\u2019s In 1343 Ruusbroec, together with John Hinckaert influence is evident in the first generations of the Mod- and Frank of Coudenberg (d. 1386), another Canon of ern Devotion: the canons regular of the Windesheim St. Gudula, left Brussels to live a contemplative life Chapter, Gerlach Peters (d. 1411), Hendrik Mande (d. in Groenendaal (Green Valley), a site in the Wood of 1431), and Thomas \u00e0 Kempis (1379\/1380\u20131471). An- Soignes about ten kilometers south of Brussels. To cope other member of the Modern Devotion, Hendrik Herp with the juridical problems, resulting from their living (d. 1477), was so deeply influenced by Ruusbroec that together as a religious community without belonging he earned the name of \u201cHerold of Ruusbroec.\u201d Through to an established order or following a recognized rule, him, Ruusbroec\u2019s influence reached France through the group, which had meanwhile increased, became a Benedict of Canneld (1562\u20131610) and John of Saint provostry of canons regular of St. Augustine. Ruusbroec Samson (1571\u20131636). Born in England, Benedict passed was the first prior of the newly founded monastery. much of his life in France, where he became a Capuchin. There, he introduced Ruusbroec to mystical circles, for In Groenendaal he continued his work as a writer. example, to one Madame Acarie (1566\u20131618). John, There, he finished his largest work, Van den geeste- blind from his early youth, joined the Carmelites and liken tabernakel (The Spiritual Tabernacle). As the became one of the most outstanding mystical writers number of the manuscripts still preserved indicates, of his order. this treatise must have been very popular in its time. For the modern reader, access is difficult because the See also Thomas \u00e0 Kempis Tabernacle is a continuous allegory on some passages from the biblical books, Exodus and Leviticus, which Further Reading describe the construction of the tabernacle and give ritual prescriptions during Israel\u2019s stay in the desert. Dupr\u00e9, Louis. The Common Life: The Origins of Trinitarian The link between material image and spiritual reality Mysticism and its Development by Jan van Ruusbroec. New may seem somewhat farfetched today, but the way in York: Crossroad, 1984. which Ruusbroec masters the complex whole of image and reality is astonishing. Mommaers, Paul and Norbert de Paepe, ed. Jan van Ruusbroec: the sources, content and sequels of his mysticism. Mediaevalia In Groenendaal Ruusbroec not only wrote books, but Lovaniensia ser. 1. Studia 12. Leuven: Leuven University also met people who came to him with their questions Press, 1984. about a life of prayer. Among the most famous was Geert Grote (1340\u20131384), the founder of the religious move- Underhill, Evelyn. Ruysbroeck. London: Bell, 1915. ment, the Modern Devotion. Very rarely, Ruusbroec left van Ruusbroec, Jan. Werken. Naar het standaardhandschrift van Groenendaal to visit those who were not allowed to leave their monasteries. At an advanced age, he traveled on Groenendaal uitgegeven door het Ruusbroec-genootschap foot to a monastery of Carthusians to help them with te Antwerpen. 4 vols. Mechelen\/Amsterdam: Kompas, some difficulties concerning his description of the high- 1932\u20131934; 2nd ed. Tielt: Lannoo, 1944\u20131948. est stages of mystical life. This visit gave rise to one of \u2014\u2014. Opera Omnia. Studi\u00ebn en tekstuitgaven van Ons Geestelijk his last works, Boecsken der verclaringhe (Little Book Erf, XX. Leiden: Brill; Tielt: Lannoo; Turn-hour: Brepols, of Enlightenment). By means of another tripartition, 1981ff. [Middle Dutch text, English and Latin trans.; Dutch enecheit met middel (unity with intermediary), sonder and Latin introd.; 10 vols. planned, 4 published]. \u2014\u2014. The Spiritual Espousals and Other Works, Trans. James A. Wiseman. New York\/Mahwah\/Toronto: Paulist, 1985. Wiseman, James A. \u201cMinne in Die gheestelike brulocht of Jan van Ruusbroec.\u201d S.T.D. Thesis. Catholic University of America, 1979. Guido O. E. J. De Baere 365","JAUFRE RUDEL his Dictionarius, perhaps the first word book to be so entitled. Jean also wrote a brief verse commentary to JAUFRE RUDEL (fl. 1120\u201348) Ovid\u2019s Metamorphoses, the Integumenta Ovidii, giving interpretations sometimes moral, sometimes scientific The troubadour Jaufre Rudel, lord of Blaye in the Gi- or historical, to the fables. Like many of his works, the ronde, sang of earthly love infused by a mystical quest Integumenta presupposes a vast general knowledge of expressed also through his participation in the Second the subject and is not intended for the novice. Crusade. Of his six surviving songs of certain authen- ticity, Jaufre\u2019s most successful canso is directed to his Jean was also concerned about the moral formation love from afar, or amor de loing, which gives this lyric of his students and wrote several works with that aim, its leitmotif and keyword. In this song and in Qan lo among them the Morale scolarium (1241), an admoni- rius, he voices his yearning for a distant love, diversely tion on the values and habits of the ideal scholar, and the interpreted by critics as a woman, the Virgin Mary, God, Stella maris (ca. 1249), in praise of the Virgin Mary as or the Holy Land. Recent scholarship underlines instead a paragon of Christian virtue and action. A later work, the deliberate ambiguity in jaufre\u2019s fusion of linguistic De triumphis ecclesiae (ca. 1252), is a polemic against registers and love objects drawn from both profane and pagans and heretics, based on his earlier experiences sacred traditions. The legend of his love for the Countess in Toulouse. of Tripoli dates from the pseudobiographical vida and earlier. It has been echoed in every century since the Jean had a prominent reputation in the 13th century. 13th by authors as varied as Petrarch, Stendhal, Rostand, But though his promotion of lay piety was in keeping Browning, Heine, Carducci, Pound, and D\u00f6blin. with the contemporary mission of the Dominicans and Franciscans, his resistance to Aristotelian studies and to See also Petrarca, Francesco the new emphasis on logic in the curriculum bespeak a conservatism more in keeping with the schools of the Further Reading 12th century than with the universities of the 13th. Jaufre Rudel. The Songs of Jaufre Rudel, ed. Rupert T. Pickens. Jean must not be confused with the musician of the Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1978. same name. \u2014\u2014. The Poetry of Cercamon and Jaufre Rudel, ed. and trans. Further Reading George Wolf and Roy Rosenstein. New York: Garland, 1983. Jean de Garlande. Morale scolarium of John of Garland (Jo- hannes de Garlandia), a Professor in the Universities of Paris \u2014\u2014. Il canzoniere di Jaufre Rudel, ed. Giorgio Chiarini. Rome: and Toulouse in the Thirteenth Century, ed. Louis J. Paetow. Japadre, 1985. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1927. Rosenstein, Roy. \u201cNew Perspectives on Distant Love: Jaufre Wilson, Evelyn Faye. The Stella maris of John of Garland. Cam- Rudel, Uc Bru, and Sarrazina.\u201d Modern Philology 87 (1990): bridge: Mediaeval Academy of America, 1946. 225\u201338. Mark Zier Roy S. Rosenstein JEAN DE MEUN JEAN DE GARLANDE (Jehan de Meung; 1235\/40\u20131305) (Johannes de Garlandia; ca. 1195\u2013ca. 1272) Born at Meung-sur-Loire, Jean Chopinel (or Clopinel) Born in England, Jean first studied at Oxford shortly obtained the Master of Arts, most likely in Paris. He after 1200 and went to Paris in 1217 or 1218, first to dwelt for much of his adult life in the capital, where from complete his studies and then to teach. At Paris, he lived at least 1292 to his death he was housed in the H\u00f4tel de in the Clos de Garlande, from which he derives his name. la Tourelle in the Faubourg Saint-Jacques. Jean\u2019s works At the close of the Albigensian Crusade, the papal legate exhibit a rich classical and scholastic culture. Among Romain Frangipani commissioned him to teach at the the works he translated into French are Vegetius, De newly formed University of Toulouse (April 2, 1229), re militari, dedicated to Jean de Brienne, count of Eu; together with the Dominican master Roland of Cremona. Boethius, De consolatione Philosophiae, dedicated to Jean remained at Toulouse for only a few years. He may Philip the Fair; and the correspondence of Ab\u00e9lard and have returned to England during the 1230s but in any H\u00e9lo\u00efse. He also claims two additional translations, case was again teaching in Paris by 1241. which are not extant, versions of Giraldus Cambrensis, De mirabilibus Hiberniae, and of Aelred of Rievaulx, Jean\u2019s interests ranged primarily over the field of De spirituali amicitia. More likely than not, Jean was literary studies: etymology, rhetoric, grammar, and also the author of the satirical Testament maistre Jehan poetics. One of his earliest and best-known works, the de Meun and Codicile maistre Jehan de Meun. Parisiana poetria (ca. 1220; revised a decade later), was a treatise on the art of poetry in the tradition of Matthieu But Jean is best remembered as the second author of de Vend\u00f4me and Geoffroi de Vinsauf. In this work, he stresses the place of both verse and prose composition in the arts curriculum. From this same period comes 366","the Roman de la Rose, an allegorical narrative begun JEAN DE MEUN by Guillaume de Lorris. This masterwork has survived in over 250 manuscripts. It also had twenty-one printed vision that Jean de Meun wishes to instill, is subject to editions from 1481 to 1538. The Rose was translated controversy. Most scholars believe that Jean transforms partially or in toto during the medieval period once and refutes Guillaume de Lorris\u2019s Rose, that he derides, into Dutch, twice into Italian, and three times into undermines, and destroys the ideal of fin\u2019amors at every English\u2014the first English fragment is attributed to turn. One school of thought argues that Jean counters Chaucer. Jean de Meun influenced Dante, Boccaccio, fin\u2019amors with a call to procreation, to free love in the Machaut, and Froissart; he played a crucial role in the service of cosmic plenitude. Another school proposes formation of both Chaucer and Gower. Jean\u2019s section that Jean treats all his characters, with the exception of of the Rose became the subject of the first great literary Lady Reason, with irony and that his philosophy con- quarrel, at the beginning of the 15th century. Jean de forms to orthodox, Augustinian Christianity. The reason Meun was the first recognized auctor and auctoritas scholarly opinion differs so strikingly, why it is so dif- in French literary history, and his book the first true ficult to pin down the author\u2019s personal doctrine, lies in French classic, glossed, explicated, quoted, indexed, the fact that Jean de Meun has chosen to exploit a unique anthologized, and fought over\u2014treated as if it were a version of narrative technique, quite different from that masterpiece from antiquity. of his predecessors. Jean distinguishes himself as author from the dreamer-protagonist of his story, proclaimed Guillaume de Lorris wrote his Roman de la Rose, to be Guillaume de Lorris, thus creating a first level of 4,028 lines left unfinished, in the early 1220s. In the irony and distance. Second, the dreamer-protagonist, decade 1264\u201374 Jean de Meun brought Guillaume\u2019s Fair Welcome, and Genius listen to and approve or text to a conclusion. Jean\u2019s Rose, some 17,722 lines, disapprove of the lengthy discourses listed above, all does not merely complete the earlier poem: he grafts a of which are also presented with comedy and irony. totally original sequel onto it. Speakers have a proclivity to contradict themselves, and to cite texts from antiquity that refute rather than The God of Love comes with his army to succor support their position. There is no foolproof method Guillaume\u2019s forlorn Lover. First, False Seeming and for determining which, if any, of the discourses are to Constrained Abstinence slay Foul Mouth, permitting be given greater weight than the others; which, if any, the Lover to speak with Fair Welcome. A pitched battle carry Jean\u2019s own conviction. Readers must judge each occurs between the attackers and the defenders of the of these delegated voices in turn, analyzing the facts and castle, ending in a truce. Finally, Venus leads a victorious rhetoric, to come to their own conclusions. The result, assault, flinging her torch into the sanctuary: the castle perhaps intended by Jean de Meun, is a state of doctrinal bursts into flames, and the Lover wins the Rose. indeterminacy, in which the Lover and the audience are offered a sequence of philosophies and worldviews. The The action and the allegory no longer play a primary Lover, in the end, decides\u2014he opens the sanctuary with role, as they did for Guillaume de Lorris. They serve joy\u2014but the reader-audience is not obliged to applaud as supports, and pretexts, for discourse: exhortations his decision. The indeterminacy remains, part and parcel from Reason and Friend to the Lover, False Seeming\u2019s of Jean\u2019s text and of a certain late Gothic mentality of confession of his true nature to the God of Love before which he is the first outstanding master. he is admitted into the army, the Old Woman\u2019s exhorta- tion to Fair Welcome, Nature\u2019s confession to her priest, Less controversial are the texture and ambience of Genius, and Genius\u2019s exhortation to the army before Jean\u2019s imaginative world, a domain in which he is as the final battle. great an innovator as in narrative technique. Compared with Guillaume de Lorris, Jean is a master of truculent The God of Love refers to Jean\u2019s book as a miro\u00ebr vulgar speech, material detail, and picaresque natural- aus amoreus (1. 10,621). It is, in one sense, a specu- ism. He shifts the audience\u2019s perspective from top to lum or anatomy, a medieval encyclopedia, treating all bottom, from rose petals to what they hide. A generation knowledge, including ethics, economics, cosmology, before Dante, three generations before Chaucer, Jean astronomy, optics, alchemy, and the university. The juxtaposes lofty and humble registers of style. Scenes, knowledge in the speculum, however, is granted unity images, and speech once reserved to the fabliaux or and coherence by means of its inclusion under the cat- excluded from polite letters altogether are now included egory of love, which Jean expounds in all facets, both in a serious work of art, alongside the sublime. good (sex and reproduction, friendship, justice, the love of reason, one\u2019s neighbor, and God) and bad (lust for Jean\u2019s demystification of courtly love assumes money, enslavement to Fortune, clerical celibacy, and several forms. His characters underscore the role of the hypocrisy and deceit that exist between false lovers money in the erotic life, that so often the opposite sex and false friends). is an object to be purchased, bartered, or exchanged for money or other commodities. The process of reification, That the Roman de la Rose is didactic no one de- and perhaps of antifeminism, is crowned by Jean de nies, but the precise nature of the message, the world 367","JEAN DE MEUN Calin, William. A Muse for Heroes: Nine Centuries of the Epic in France. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1983, chap. 5. Meun\u2019s transformation of the woman-rose into a piece of lifeless architecture, a sanctuary, which the Lover Fleming, John V. The Roman de la Rose: A Study in Allegory and pries open with his pilgrim\u2019s staff. Iconography. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969. Still more striking is the role the author applies to Gunn, Alan M. F. The Mirror of Love: A Reinterpretation of the manipulation and duplicity. Speech serves two purposes: Romance of the Rose. Lubbock: Texas Tech Press, 1952. to instruct and to trick. All people can be divided into knaves and fools, masters and slaves, deceivers and Payen, Jean-Charles. La Rose et l\u2019utopie: r\u00e9volution sexuelle et deceived. The deceivers create illusion by hiding behind communisme nostalgique chez Jean de Meung. Paris: \u00c9ditions masks; it is not easy for the Lover, Fair Welcome, or Sociales, 1976. anyone else to distinguish appearance from reality, the mask from the flesh, the literal bark from an allegori- William C. Calin cal kernel. The author tells us that, since the end of the Golden Age, dissimulation, violence, and evil are part JEANNE D\u2019ARC (ca. 1412\u20131431) of the human condition and that we must learn to cope with them. Throughout the Rose, he implicitly urges the The most heroic of France\u2019s saints, Jeanne d\u2019Arc was Lover and the audience to go beyond appearances and born to a peasant family in Lorraine. At thirteen, Jeanne seek the truth, to open our eyes and rip aside the mask of began hearing the \u201cvoices\u201d (of SS. Michael, Catherine, falsehood. Knowledge can then lead to action. Some of and Margaret) that inspired her. In February 1429, she Jean\u2019s characters remain passive, blind, impotent. Oth- persuaded a Valois captain to provide an escort for ers, including the Lover, attain a measure of freedom, her dangerous journey to the court of Charles VII. At becoming masters not slaves, adults not children. Chinon, Jeanne convinced the king of her divine mis- sion to defeat the English and to assist at his overdue Jean\u2019s is a world of comedy. Several of his characters coronation. After formal inquiry into her orthodoxy embody comic archetypes derived from the classics of and chastity, she was given a commanding role in a ancient Rome. They are rigid, mechanical, obsessed with relief force for Orl\u00e9ans and led reinforcements into their narrow concerns. Furthermore, the narrative line, the besieged city on April 29. She inspired counterat- such as it is, constitutes the triumph of young love over tacks that compelled the English to abandon the siege old constraint. In spite of the blocking figures, Venus\u2019s on May 8. A month later, her army\u2019s decisive victory torch burns and the story ends, as comedies must, with at Patay ensured Valois control over the Loire Valley the couple packed off to bed. Whatever Jean\u2019s doctrine, and destroyed the myth of English invincibility. The whether for good or ill, the victory of our animal nature subsequent campaign that brought Charles to Reims for is achieved in a denouement of erotic explosion and the a triumphant coronation on July 17 was the high point exaltation of life. It is for this reason that many scholars, of Jeanne\u2019s meteoric career. especially in France, associate Jean de Meun with the awakening of humanism, the rebirth of reverence for Now a political force, Jeanne became a recognized antiquity, lust for life, and the revaluation of art that are leader of the court faction favoring renewed war over hallmarks of the 12th- and 13th-century renaissance. negotiations with the Anglo-Burgundians. Failure in war soon destroyed her influence. When, she was defeated See also Ab\u00e9lard, Peter; Boccaccio, Giovanni; and wounded in an ill-considered assault on Paris in Chaucer, Geoffrey; Dante Alighieri; September, Charles arranged a truce and disbanded his Guillaume de Lorris army. Though her family had been ennobled, Jeanne was politically isolated and left the court in the spring Further Reading to bolster Compi\u00e8gne\u2019s resistance to a Burgundian siege. She was captured there on May 24, 1430, and, to Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun. Le roman de la Rose, ed. his eternal discredit, abandoned by Charles. Jeanne\u2019s and trans. Armand Strubel. Paris: Livre de Poche, 1992. cross-dressing, claims to divine guidance, and success had aroused suspicions of sorcery, but her subsequent \u2014\u2014. Le roman de la Rose, ed. F\u00e9lix Lecoy. 3 vols. Paris: Cham- trial and execution for heresy were acts intended pri- pion, 1965\u201370. marily to discredit the Valois cause. In response to an accusation by representatives of the University of Paris, \u2014\u2014. The Romance of the Rose, trans. Charles Dahlberg. Princ- her Burgundian captors delivered her for trial at Rouen eton: Princeton University Press, 1971. under the direction of Bishop Pierre Cauchon. Eloquent in testimony and steadfast when threatened with torture, Arden, Heather M. The Romance of the Rose. Boston: Twayne, Jeanne submitted only when weakened by illness and 1987. faced with execution. Sentenced to a life of imprison- ment and penance, she relapsed and was condemned. \u2014\u2014. The Roman de la Rose: An Annotated Bibliography. New Courageous to the end, she insisted on her innocence York: Garland, 1993. and asked the executioner to hold the cross high so Badel, Pierre-Yves. Le roman de la Rose au XIVe si\u00e8cle: \u00e9tude de la r\u00e9ception de I\u2019\u0153uvre. Geneva: Droz, 1980. Brownlee, Kevin, and Sylvia Huot. Rethinking the Romance of the Rose: Text, Image, Reception. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992. 368","JEANNE OF NAVARRE she could see it through the flames. Jeanne remained a Arrival of Joan of Arc at Chinon. controversial figure, and in 1456 Charles VII arranged German tapestry (called Azeghio the annulment of her conviction mainly to clear himself tapestry), 15th c. Photo: Bulloz. of a suspect association. \u00a9 R\u00e9union des Mus\u00e9es Nationaux\/Art Resource, New York. Shrouded in myth and exalted by unceasing artistic glorification, Jeanne endures as a figure inspiring even Librairie d\u2019Argences, 1921\u201358; Vol. 5, Paris: De Brouwer, the most skeptical. Her historical importance could be 1961. narrowly construed: she was essentially a military figure Tisset, Pierre, and Yvonne Lanhers, eds. Proc\u00e8s de condamnation whose inspirational leadership and ephemeral battlefield de Jeanne d\u2019Arc. 3 vols. Paris: Klincksieck, 1960\u201371. success helped restore the prestige of the Valois dynasty, Gies, Frances. Joan of Arc: The Legend and the Reality. New ensuring its survival but not its eventual triumph. Few, York: Harper and Row, 1981. however, would restrict themselves to such a reduc- Margolis, Nadia. Joan of Arc in History, Literature, and Film: A tive assessment. Jeanne\u2019s courageous example and her Select, Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1990. martyrdom assure her an enduring role in modern life, Vale, Malcolm G.A. Charles VII. Berkeley: University of Cali- not unlike that played by Roland in the Middle Ages. fornia Press, 1974. She has become a symbolic figure emblematic of many Warner, Marina. Joan of Arc: The Image of Female Heroism. and varied hopes. Above all, she is the symbol of 20th- New York: Knopf, 1981. century France at war with both itself and its German invaders. In the late 19th century, the \u201cMaid of Orl\u00e9ans\u201d Paul D. Solon become a popular heroine who inspired generations of French conservatives in the struggle against the secular- JEANNE OF NAVARRE (1273\u20131305) ism of the Third Republic and reminded all Frenchmen of the need to regain the lost provinces of Alsace and Queen of France. The daughter of Henri III of Cham- Lorraine seized by Germany in 1870. This popular pagne and Navarre and Blanche of Artois, granddaughter devotion led to her canonization in the aftermath of the of Louis VIII, Jeanne inherited her father\u2019s lands in First World War and final confirmation that her greatness 1274. Plans for her to marry the heirs, first of Edward transcends if not defies historical analysis. I of England and then the king of Aragon, failed after problems in Spain led Blanche and Jeanne to seek asy- See also Charles VII, Christine de Pizan lum with Philip III. In May 1275, Blanche put Navarre under Philip\u2019s protection and affianced Jeanne to one of Further Reading his sons. Raised at the French court, Jeanne was declared of age on May 17, 1284, and on August 16 married Doncoeur, Paul, and Yvonne Lanhers, eds. Documents et recher- Philip IV the Fair, who on October 6, 1285, succeeded ches relatifs \u00e0 Jeanne la Pucelle. 5 vols. Vols. 1\u20134, Melun: his father as king. Jeanne was closely involved with the administration of Champagne and Navarre, but Philip effectively controlled them. Jeanne was a popular queen, and Philip was de- voted to her. In 1288, he deferred until after her death collection of money owed for the defense of Navarre. In October 1294, he appointed her regent of France if he died before their eldest son came of age. Her name 369","JEANNE OF NAVARRE to the death-roll of the brotherhood, between February 2 and June 16, 1210. was associated with Philip\u2019s in important acts, and she accompanied him on his grand tour of the Midi in Jehan\u2019s work has only gradually unveiled its secrets. 1303\u201304. She showed independence in supporting the Long underestimated, it now appears as one of the Franciscan Bernard D\u00e9licieux and accepting gifts from richest, most original \u0153uvres in medieval literature. citizens of B\u00e9ziers, whose orthodoxy and loyalty were Because he tackled various genres simultaneously, the suspect. She pressed the prosecution of Guichard, bishop chronology of his works is difficult to establish. He of Troyes, accused of cheating her and her mother (and is one of the earliest writers of pastourelles in langue later charged with killing Jeanne by sorcery). A woman d\u2019o\u00efl; five have been ascribed to him. Such narrative of considerable culture, she commissioned Joinville\u2019s lyrics had already been composed by troubadours, but Vie de saint Louis; Ramon Lull and her confessor Du- the Arragese minstrel left his mark upon the genre. rand de Champagne dedicated works to her, and Ray- Within a conventional framework, he proved original mond of B\u00e9ziers began for her his translation of Kalila et in his skilled composition in a wide range of prosodic Dimna. She was godmother of Enguerran de Marigny\u2019s structures and in the impression of truthfulness he gives wife, and Enguerran was the officer in charge of Jeanne\u2019s due to subtle characterization and concrete details taken pantry before joining Philip\u2019s service in 1302. from peasant life. Jeanne bore Philip four sons and a daughter before Slightly different in inspiration were his one fable dying on April 2, 1305. In her lavish testament, she and eight fabliaux, those merry tales that give full scope used 40,000 livres parisis and three years\u2019 revenues of to the imagination of an artist aiming at entertaining Champagne, assigned her by Philip, to endow a hospi- a noble audience at the expense of the middle class, tal at Ch\u00e2teau-Thierry and the Coll\u00e9ge de Navarre in peasants, women, and churchmen. If not as incisive as Paris. Having rejected burial at Saint-Denis, the royal Gautier le Leu\u2019s, Jehan\u2019s fabliaux evince acute observa- mausoleum, she was interred at the Franciscan church tion and a rich experience of the life of Picard peasants in Paris. and merchants. The genre, free enough to encompass risqu\u00e9 tales and cautionary fables, appealed to this story- See also Llull, Ram\u00f3n; Philip IV the Fair teller keen on Gallic mirth: Jehan Bodiax, un rimoieres de flabiax, as he called himself. Further Reading His versatility led him to widen the scope of his writ- Arbois de Jubainville, Henry d\u2019. Histoire des ducs et des comtes ings. A connoisseur of chansons de geste, he soon real- de Champagne. 7 vols. Paris: Durand et Lauriel, 1859\u201369. ized that the Saxon wars, a landmark in Charlemagne\u2019s reign, were a fit subject for a vast epic, and by 1180 he Brown, Elizabeth A.R. The Monarchy of Capetain France and undertook the composition of the Chanson des Saisnes, Royal Ceremonial. London: Variorum, 1991. which his disease prevented him from completing. Four drafts of this work are extant, the shortest one known Favier, Jean. Un conseiller de Philippe le Bel: Enguerran de as A (4,337 lines) and the longest as T (8,019 lines). Marigny. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1963. Analysis shows that later writers tried to bring the un- finished poem to completion after the 12th century. The Lalou, Elisabeth. \u201cLe gouvernement de la reine Jeanne, 1285\u2013 first 3,307 lines of A provide us with a text as close as 1304.\u201d Cahiers Haut-Marnais 167 (1986): 16\u201330. possible to what Jehan\u2019s original work may have been. Here, we can recognize the innovator at once by his Elizabeth A.R. Brown art and literary theories as well as his idea of history. In keeping with the Roland tradition of the chanson de JEHAN BODEL (d. 1210) geste, he foregrounds Charlemagne but also humanizes the God-chosen emperor, whose character underwent A trouv\u00e8re fromArras in the second half of the 12th centu- further transformation with the continuators. Nor is ry and one of the most prominent writers of his time. Jehan Jehan\u2019s inspiration purely epic: with the amours of Bodel\u2019s life is only sketchily known\u2014neither the date nor Baudouin, the young Frenchman, romance is woven the place of his birth has been established with accuracy. into the martial narrative, while the comedy peculiar to fabliaux creeps into the episode of Saint-Herbert du Jehan Bodel had strong links with the city of Arras Rhin. The poem synthesizes all the components of the and its surroundings. He introduces himself as a minstrel author\u2019s craftsmanship: a scholarly minstrel, fascinated in his Cong\u00e9s: he was a member of the Arras minstrel by history and committed to his times, both an observer and burgher brotherhood and contributed to the rapid of reality and a visionary, but first and foremost a poet expansion of this society. Stanza 40 of the Cong\u00e9s sug- capable of breathing life into whatever he portrayed. gests that he was a familiar of the Arras \u00e9chevinage, or town council, to which he was presumably attached. Jehan dealt once more with an epic subject in the Jeu Elated by Foulque de Neuilly\u2019s preaching, he was about to follow Baudouin of Flanders, the future conqueror of Constantinople, to the Holy Land, when he began to suffer from the first signs of leprosy. In 1202, he with- drew to a leprosarium in the Arras region, most likely at Grant Val near Beaurains, where he died, according 370","de saint Nicolas, a semiliturgical drama produced during JIM\u00c9NEZ DE RADA, RODRIGO the grand si\u00e8ge, or convention, of the Arras brotherhood, between 1194 and 1202. As in the Chanson des Saisnes, de la Halle), ed. Pierre Ruelle. Paris: Presses Universitaires the background is the war of Christians and heathens. de France, 1965, pp. 83\u2013104. [Based on MS. A (Arsenal After an initial victory by the king of Africa\u2019s Saracens, 3142).] the only survivor of the Christian host eventually ensures Brasseur, Annette. \u00c9tude linguistique et litt\u00e9raire de la \u201cChanson the triumph of his party, thanks to the protection of the des Saisnes\u201d de Jehan Bodel. Geneva: Droz, 1990. saint; the king and his men convert to Christianity. The \u2014\u2014. \u201cIndex des rimes de Jehan Bodel.\u201d Olifant 15 (1990): Jeu is a chanson de geste in miniature.Yet once more, the 211\u2013336. narrow frame of the genre, the dramatized miracle play, Foulon, Charles. L\u2019\u0153uvre de Jehan Bodel. Paris: Presses Univer- bursts under the poet\u2019s creative power. \u201cThroughout the sitaires de France, 1958. play,\u201d Albert Henry writes, \u201csacred and profane, sublime and comic, marvelous . . . and realistic elements are to Annette Brasseur be found side by side.\u201d In this powerful and original work, a masterpiece of medieval dramatic literature, is JIM\u00c9NEZ DE RADA, RODRIGO reflected the multifarious personality of an author who (ca. 1170 \u2013 1247) showed as much sincerity in praising Auxerre wine as in extolling the crusade. Jim\u00e9nez was born about 1170 in Puente la Reina in Na- varre, to a family of the minor nobility. His father was Disease turned Jehan into one of our great lyric Jimeno P\u00e9rez de Rada, and his mother, Eva de Finojosa. poets. When obliged to withdraw from the society His uncle, Mart\u00edn, was abbot of the monastery of Santa of his contemporaries, he wrote a long supplication Mar\u00eda ais de la Huerta. Family connections probably to his friends and benefactors in his farewell poems led to a stay at the royal court of Navarre before his (Cong\u00e9s), composed in 1202. Taking up the stanzaic departure to secure a higher education at the Universities form of H\u00e9linant de Froid-mont\u2019s Vers de la Mort, he of Bologna and of Paris. The dates of his stay at those bade a pathetic farewell to the world in forty-five oc- institutions are unknown, although it appears that he tosyllabic stanzas. The regret of bygone joys, rebellion was in Paris in 1201. He had returned to Navarre and against and resignation to his misfortune, faith in God, the court of Sancho VII well before 1207. In that year gratitude to those who harbored him \u201chalf sound and he participated in the negotiation of a peace between half rotten\u201d\u2014all the themes of a new genre are to be Sancho and Alfonso VIII of Castile. His ambition and found here. A work of harrowing sincerity, the Cong\u00e9s talent must have recommended Rodrigo instantly to the stand, in the early 13th century, as the first example of latter, to whom he became a major adviser and confidant \u201cordeal lyricism\u201d to be found in so many poets from for the rest of his reign. Rutebeuf to Verlaine. Their relationship had become so strong by 1208 that A teller of spicy stories, the author of a chanson de Jim\u00e9nez, not yet an ordained a priest, was nominated geste, a skillful dramatist, a lyric poet, and a critic (in the by Alfonso to the see of Osma, although he was never prologue to the Chanson des Saisnes, he puts forward a consecrated to it. Instead, further royal favor propelled classification of the three principal poetic genres), Jehan him in that same year into the primatial see of Toledo. Bodel tackled most contemporary forms and achieved In that capacity he toured western Europe in 1211, so- creativity in each. liciting aid for a crusade against Muslim Andalusia. In July 1212 he was present in the army of Alfonso VIII Further Reading when the great victory over Muslim forces from North Africa was won at Las Navas de Tolosa. Bartsch, Karl, ed. Altfranz\u00f6sische Romanzen und Pastourellen. Leipzig: Vogel, 1870, pp. 287\u201391. [Based on MS F (B.N. fr. During the next few years the debility of the king and 12645).] realm prevented any immediate exploitation of that vic- tory, but Jim\u00e9nez was active in consolidating the resul- Berger, Roger, ed. La n\u00e9crologie de la confr\u00e9rie des jongleurs tant territorial gains of the kingdom and of his see in La et des bourgeois d\u2019Arras (1194\u20131361): texte et tables. Arras: Mancha. He was a major political figure in the brief reign Imprimerie Centrale de 1\u2019Artois, 1963. of Enrique I (1214\u20131217) and again during the minority of Fernando III. When the latter reached his majority, Bodel, Jehan. La chanson des Saisnes, ed. Annette Brasseur. 2 Jim\u00e9nez became a royal confidant and one of the chief vols. Geneva: Droz, 1989. royal advisers as Fernando ruled Castile (1217\u20131252) and then Le\u00f3n (1230\u20131252) after the reunion of the two \u2014\u2014. La chanson des Saxons, trans. Annette Brasseur. Paris: realms, In those capacities he assisted the king in the Champion, 1992. campaigns that saw the definitive conquest of eastern and central Andalusia\u2014Baeza (1225), \u00dabeda (1233), \u2014\u2014. Le jeu de saint Nicolas de Jehan Bodel, ed. Albert Henry. and C\u00f3rdoba (1236)\u2014although he did not live to see Brussels: Palais des Acad\u00e9mies, 1980. [Based on MS V (B.N. the conquest of Seville (1248). fr. 25566).] Jim\u00e9nez\u2019s tenure as archbishop also saw the territorial \u2014\u2014. Les fabliaux de Jean Bodel, ed. Pierre Nardin. Paris: Nizet, 1965. [Based on MS A (B.N. fr. 837).] \u2014\u2014. Les cong\u00e9s d\u2019Arras (Jean Bodel, Baude Fastoul, Adam 371","JIM\u00c9NEZ DE RADA, RODRIGO the work deals primarily with the Muslim conquest of Iberia down through the arrival in the peninsula of the and juridical consolidation of the see of Toledo, whose North African Mura\u00af bit (Almoravids). It demonstrates aggrandizement was one of the great passions of his his acquaintance with both the Arabic language and life. The other peninsular archiepiscopates\u2014Braga, some of the Muslim historians, as well as the breadth Santiago de Compostela, and Tarragona\u2014were forced of his interests. A Historia Romanorum displays his to recognize the primacy of Toledo. Bishoprics for classical interests, and a Historia Ostrogothorum and the newly conquered cities of Baeza and C\u00f3rdoba in a Historia Hunnorum, Vandalorum, Suevorum, Alano- Andalusia were made suffragans of Toledo. However, rum, et Silingorum demonstrate his debt to the school claims to Zamora and Plasencia, where sees had been of Iberian historians of Visigothic times, especially created during the earlier re-conquest period, were Isidore of Seville. lost to Santiago de Compostela. Also, despite much acrimony, newly conquered Valencia was assigned by During the spring of 1247 Jim\u00e9nez traveled to France Rome to Tarragona rather than Toledo, and the ancient to visit Pope Innocent IV at Lyons. On his return journey see of Oviedo in the north continued to be exempt from to Iberia he drowned in the Rhone on 10 June. His body all metropolitan jurisdiction. was embalmed and returned to the monastery of Santa Mar\u00eda de la Huerta, where it was entombed. His tomb Given the conditions of the age, none of this could be was opened for examination as recently as 1907. carried through without the cooperation of the papacy, and Jim\u00e9nez was well known at Rome. He had gone See also Fernando III, King of Castile there first in 1211 to secure backing for the campaign of Alfonso VIII against the Almohads in 1212. He returned Further Reading there to attend the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. And in 1236 and 1241 he visited the pope. In 1218 he was Ballesteros Gaibros, M. Don Rodrigo Jim\u00e9nez de Rada. Madrid, named papal legate in the peninsula, and from 1224 was 1943. (A highly laudatory and semipopular introduction.) entrusted by the papacy with a contemplated creation of a diocese for North Africa in Morocco. Nevertheless, Gorosterratzu, J. Don Rodrigo Jim\u00e9mez de Rada: Gran estadista, Jim\u00e9nez had his problems with Rome. Often they flowed escritor y prelado. Pamplona, 1925. (The only modern biog- from the collection and utilization of ecclesiastical raphy; old-fashioned, but thorough.) revenues for the reconquest of the south. Jim\u00e9nez had helped to persuade Rome of their necessity, and was Jim\u00e9mez de Rada, Rodrigo. Rodericus Ximenius de Rada. Opera. involved in their application to the benefit of the crown. Ed. Mar\u00eda Desamparades Cabanes Pecourt. Valencia, 1968. Inevitably he was caught between the necessities of the (Reprint of the 1793 complete edition of his work.) crown, the reluctance of the Spanish clergy, and the suspicions of Rome. \u2014\u2014. Historia Arabum. Ed. J. Lozano S\u00e1nchez. Anales de la Universidad Hispalense, serie Filosof\u00eda y Letras. Vol. 21. Some of the moneys from this source certainly con- Seville, 1974. tributed, directly or indirectly, to the glorification of the church at Toledo and of its archbishop. Jim\u00e9nez had \u2014\u2014. Historia de rebus Hispaniae sive Historia gothica. Ed. hardly been consecrated when he began the construction J. Hern\u00e1ndez Valverde. Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio of a new archiepiscopal palace in Alcal\u00e1 de Henares Medievalia, Vol. 72. Tumhout, 1987. (ca. 1209). The present Gothic cathedral at Toledo was begun under his aegis (ca. 1221) to replace the mosque Bernard F. Reilly that had served as a cathedral since 1085. JOACHIM OF FIORE Without question Jim\u00e9nez was the dominant figure in (c. 1135\u201330 March 1202) the Iberian Church during the first half of the thirteenth century, and a major political and court figure as well. Joachim of Fiore (Flora, Floris) was a biblical exegete Even so, he found time to produce six historical works, and the founder of the order of San Giovanni in Fiore, and so became the major historian of that period. The commonly known as the Florensians. Joachim\u2019s at- most important of these is his De rebus Hispaniae, in tempts to explain the patterns of Christian history gained which he carried on the tradition of the Latin chronicle him a reputation as a prophet in the thirteenth century, from Genesis down to the recent conquest of C\u00f3rdoba. as well as a following among the Spiritual faction of the In large measure he continued the work of his older Franciscan order. His reputation as a prophet made his contemporary, Lucas of T\u00fay, and supplied the materials thought very influential in the later Middle Ages, but that would underpin the new vernacular history of the some people considered him a heretic because of his Primera cr\u00f3nica general, begun in the second half of the Trinitarian doctrine and his adoption by the Spirituals. century. His Historia Arabum, on the other hand, had no known precursor in Christian Iberia, and few in western Joachim was born in Celico, near Cosenza in Cal- Europe. Beginning with the biography of Muh. ammad, abria. As a young man, he trained to be a notary like his father, and for some years he served in this capacity at the Corte del Giustiziere in Calabria and later at the court of King William II of Sicily in Salerno. Around 1167, a serious illness led Joachim to make a pilgrim- age to the Holy Land, where he decided to become a 372","monk. On his return to Calabria, Joachim retired first JOACHIM OF FIORE to the Cistercian monastery of Sambucina and then to the monastery of Corazzo, near Catanzaro. There he ment and the New Testament, manifested in parallel professed and was ordained in 1168. Sometime before events. Joachim described this as \u201ca similarity of equal 1177, he was elected abbot. Joachim found administra- proportion between the Old and the New Testaments, tion arduous; and when negotiations to have Corazzo equal, I say, as to number, not as to dignity.\u201d The idea officially accepted by the Cistercian order led to a two- of concordia had no real precedent in earlier Christian year residence at the Cistercian monastery of Casamari exegesis. Typology had been used to argue that certain (1182\u20131184), he took advantage of the respite to begin Old Testament events and figures foreshadowed Christ two major works of biblical exegesis. These were Liber and that Christ was therefore the fulfillment of Old Tes- de concordia Novi ac Veteris Testamenti (Book on the tament prophecies, but Joachim\u2019s concordia presumed Concordance between the Old and the New Testaments) a steady parallel between Old Testament and Christian and Expositio in Apocalypsim (Exposition of the Apoca- history. Moreover, Joachim treated Christ as one of lypse). Now convinced that exegesis was his real calling, many parallel figures and events in scriptural concordia, Joachim turned to the papacy to obtain a release from whereas previous exegetes had seen Christ as the only administration. When Pope Lucius III took up residence figure foreshadowed in the Old Testament. It has been in nearby Veroli during 1184, Joachim obtained Lucius\u2019s suggested that Joachim\u2019s concordia derived from a permission to devote himself to writing for a year and a desire, common in the twelfth century, to find meaning half. He received a renewal of this permission from Pope and pattern in human history. In this sense, Joachim\u2019s Urban III in 1186, and another from Pope Clement III in exegesis was very much in the spirit of his time. 1188. Clement also seems to have approved Joachim\u2019s resignation as abbot of Corazzo, which was now fully Joachim believed that three visions had given him incorporated into the Cistercian order. the spiritual insight to perceive scriptural concordia. His study of concordia revealed, in turn, the patterns of In the mid-1180s, Joachim became dissatisfied with history. These were overlapping numerical sequences of the Cistercian life. He moved to a hermitage at Petralata, events, arranged mainly in twos, threes, and sevens. The and then to San Giovanni in Fiore, in the Sila mountains. two most important were the synchronous diffinitio al- Meanwhile, his reputation as a prophet was growing. In pha and diffinitio omega. Diffinitio alpha divided history 1191, he was summoned to an interview with Richard I into three status or states, corresponding to the persons Coeur de Lion (Lion-Heart) at Messina; later that year of the Trinity and symbolizing the spiritual progress of he was summoned to another, with Emperor Henry VI humanity. Diffinitio omega was arranged in two stages near Naples. The Cistercian leadership did not approve corresponding to the Old Testament on the one hand, and of Joachim\u2019s activities, however. In 1192, the order\u2019s the New Testament, the Christian era, and a final period chapter general declared that if Joachim and his com- of special spiritual understanding on the other. This panion Ranier of Ponza did not return to Corazzo by final period would be the completion of the Christian the feast of John the Baptist in 1193, they would be era. The first status of diffinitio alpha was marked by considered fugitives. Joachim ignored the deadline an order of married people and the second by an order and instead founded his own order at Fiore. Again he of clerics; the third would be characterized by an order turned to the papacy to legitimize his actions. The rule of monks. This third status would be a time of joyous of Joachim\u2019s new order, based on that of the Cistercians contemplation and understanding of the scriptures, in but more austere, was approved by Pope Celestine III in which the church would become truly spiritual. Joachim 1196. Joachim also received a charter for his monastery thought that the second status was gradually giving way and an annual stipend from Emperor Henry VI. The new to the third in his own rime. On the basis of the pattern order spread rapidly, establishing thirty-eight houses in of twos that he saw throughout the Old and New Testa- Calabria and twenty-two elsewhere within the first few ments, he predicted that the church would be led into decades of its existence. But its growth stopped in the the new status by two new orders of spiritual men: one mid-thirteenth century, apparently because of competi- an order of hermits, the other of preachers. These orders tion from the Mendicant orders. It was united with the would not end the Roman church but would, rather, Cistercian order in 1570. lead its transition to a higher quality of spiritual life. There would be a period of peace before the last great Joachim died at the Florensian monastery of San persecution preceding the last judgment. Martino di Giove near Canale. In 1240, his body was translated to San Giovanni, where it became the center Joachim subdivided the stages of historical diffinitio- of a local cult. nes into lesser overlapping patterns, also numerically based. For example, the first status featured twelve Joachim\u2019s fame rests on his novel method of scrip- patriarchs who founded twelve tribes, the second had tural exegesis. He sought understanding of what he twelve apostles who founded twelve churches, and the called concordia\u2014harmony between the Old Testa- third had twelve great religious who founded twelve monasteries. Although each set of twelve dominated 373","JOACHIM OF FIORE Further Reading its own status, it also had roots in the previous status, Editions thus producing the overlap. By far the most important of these lesser sequences was a pattern of sevens arrang- Joachim of Fiore. Liber de concordia Novi ac Veteris Testa- ing the Old and New Testament stages of history. There menti, ed. E. Randolph Daniel. Transactions of the American was some precedent for this among previous exegetes, Philosophical Society, 73(8). Philadelphia, Pa.: American who had often divided history into seven periods. But Philosophical Society, 1983. whereas traditional commentators such as Augustine envisioned the seventh period as a time of peace beyond \u2014\u2014\u2014. Enchiridion super Apocalypsim, ed. Edward Kilian the end of history, Joachim placed his seventh age before Burger. Studies and Tests, 78. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of the last judgment. He considered this seventh age to be Mediaeval Studies, 1986. concomitant with the third status. Joachim was also original in imposing a pattern of concordant double Studies sevens subdividing the seven ages: one a sequence of seven seals that appeared during the second and third Bloomfield, Morton. \u201cRecent Scholarship on Joachim of Flora ages, the other a sequence of seven openings of the seals and His Influence.\u201d In Prophecy and Millenarianism: Essays that occurred in the sixth age. Joachim believed that he in Honour of Marjorie Reeves, ed. Ann Williams. Essex: was living at the end of the sixth age and near the end of Longman, 1980, pp. 23\u201352. the fifth seal-opening, so he speculated a good deal on the identity of contemporaries who might figure in the Daniel, E. Randolph. \u201cThe Double Procession of the Holy Spirit transition to the next age. This established an important in Joachim of Fiore\u2019s Understanding of History.\u201d Speculum, precedent for his followers. 55, 1980, pp. 469\u2013483. Joachim\u2019s Trinitarian concerns led him to question Emmerson, Richard K., and Bernard McGinn, eds. The Apoca- Peter Lombard\u2019s commonly accepted description of the lypse in the Middle Ages. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University unity of the Trinity, vera et propria, suggesting instead Press, 1992. collectiva et similitudi-naria. This formulation was condemned as tritheistic at the Fourth Lateran Council Lee, Harold, Marjorie Reeves, and Giulio Silano. Western Medi- in 1215. The council\u2019s failure to comment on the rest terranean Prophecy: The School of Joachim of Fiore and the of Joachim\u2019s doctrines created uncertainty about his Fourteenth-Century Breviloquium. Studies and Texts, 88. orthodoxy, and this uncertainty was never really re- Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1989. solved. While many were drawn to Joachim\u2019s vision of a coming spiritual age, others remained suspicious of McGinn, Bernard. The Calabrian Abbot: Joachim of Fiore in the his doctrine. In the mid-thirteenth century and the early History of Western Thought. New York: Macmillan, 1985. fourteenth, Joachim\u2019s reputation suffered further blows. His predictions regarding the two orders of spiritual men Potest\u00e0, Gian Luca, ed. Il profetismo gioachimita tra Quattrocento who would herald the new status attracted the interest of e Cinquecento: Atti del III Congresso Internazionale di Studi the newly founded Dominicans and Franciscans. Soon Gioachimiti, S. Giovanni in Fiore, 17\u201321 settembre 1989. radical Franciscans had woven their own apocalyptic Genoa: Marietti, 1991. notions around Joachim\u2019s thought. Gerard of Borgo San Donnino\u2019s Eternal Evangel was condemned as heretical Reeves, Marjorie. The Influence of Prophecy in the Later Middle in 1255. The doctrines of the Spiritual Franciscans met Ages: A Study in Joachimism. Oxford: Clarendon, 1969. a similar fate in the 1310s. Both were deeply rooted in Joachim\u2019s teachings, and their censure increased doubts \u2014\u2014. Joachim of Fiore and the Prophetic Future. London: about his orthodoxy. SPCK, 1976. Joachim\u2019s double reputation as a prophet and a heretic \u2014\u2014. \u201cThe Originality and Influence of Joachim of Fiore.\u201d Tra- continued into modern times. Thomas Aquinas, Duns ditio, 36, 1980, pp. 269\u2013316. Reeves, Marjorie, and Beatrice Scotus, and the sixteenth-century historian Cesare Bar- Hirsch-Reich. The Figurae of Joachim of Fiore. Oxford-War- onius all considered him heterodox; Dante, Boccaccio, burg Studies. Oxford: Clarendon, 1972. and the usually skeptical Bollandist Daniel Papebroch considered him a prophet. Early Protestant writers were West, Delno C., ed. Joachim of Fiore in Christian Thought: Essays similarly divided. During the Enlightenment, attacks on on the Influence of the Calabrian Abbot, 2 vols. New York: the notion of prophecy drastically diminished Joachim\u2019s Burt Franklin, 1974. influence, but in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries it could still be found in figures as diverse as Auguste West, Delno C., and Sandra Zimdars-Swartz. Joachim of Fiore: Comte and Carl Jung. A Study in Spiritual Perception and History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983. See also Dante Alighieri; Henry VI; Richard I Thomas Turley JOANNA I OF NAPLES (1326\u20131382, r. 1343\u20131382) Joanna (Joan, Joanne, Giovanna) was queen regnant of Naples. She was the elder daughter of Robert the Wise, king of Naples, and was married four times: to Andrew of Hungary (in 1340), Louis of Taranto (1347), James of Majorca (1362), and Otto of Brunswick (1375). She had no surviving issue. In 1345, Andrew was assassinated. His death pro- voked an invasion by his brother, Louis the Great of Hungary, who accused Joanna of complicity in Andrew\u2019s murder and claimed the throne for himself (as the grandson of Charles Martel, firstborn son of Charles I of Anjou). Louis entered Naples in 1348. Few Italians 374","opposed him, and some, including Cola di Rienzo, were JO\u00c3O I, KING OF PORTUGAL actively supportive. (Cola, however, fell before the Hun- garian triumph, his defeat having been partly engineered jou, eldest brother of Charles V of France (in January by Joanna\u2019s supporters.) Joanna, seeking allies, married 1380). In 1381, Urban, despairing of the Hungarians, one cousin, Louis of Taranto, secretly and without papal crowned Charles III of Durazzo king of Naples. In the sanction (she and Louis were related closely enough to ensuing civil war, Charles was successful: in August require a dispensation in order to marry); and appointed Otto was taken prisoner and Joanna surrendered. She another cousin, Charles of Durazzo (d. 1348), guardian died in prison, probably stifled to death on Charles\u2019s of her son, though Charles played an equivocal role in orders, in July 1382, while her adopted heir, Louis of the invasion. As the Hungarians approached, Joanna Anjou, was coming over the Alps to her rescue. and Louis fled to their overlord, Pope Clement VI, at Avignon. To recover his support after their marriage and Joanna\u2019s lament \u201cI regret only one thing, that the Al- the murder of Andrew and to obtain money with which mighty did not make me a man\u201d has some justification. to renew the fight against Hungary, Joanna sold Avignon Urban VI\u2019s main complaint against her was apparently to Clement for 80,000 florins, considerably less than its that he disliked queens regnant. She had some devotees, worth. Meanwhile, the black death broke out, and the notably Giovanni Boccaccio, but she was more usually Hungarians, much reduced in number, returned home, scorned as immoral and incompetent. Still, she did her taking as hostage Joanna\u2019s son (who died in Hungary) best work when she ruled alone: although her reign was but leaving Joanna and Louis of Taranto in possession a disaster, the problems were not all of her making. of the Regno. The Hungarians returned later, but never successfully. By 1352, Louis of Taranto, with help from See also Boccaccio, Giovanni; Charles V the Wise the papacy, was recognized in Naples and had also estab- lished his rights against his wife\u2019s claims to sovereignty. Further Reading Organized by the grand seneschal, Niccol\u00f2 Acciaiuoli, the Regno experienced a brief period of recovery before Editions war was renewed. The war was undertaken again partly in an unsuccessful attempt to reunite Sicily (which had Caracciolo, Tristan. Vita Joannae primae Neapolis regina, ed. been under Aragonese rule since 1285) with the Regno, Giuseppe Paladino. Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, 22. Bologna: and pardy because of renewed rebellion by the Durazzo Zanichelli, 1933, pp. 1\u201318. branch of the Angevins, who resented the dominance of Louis of Taranto. Dominicus de Gravina. Cronicon de rebus in Apulia gestis, 1333\u20131350, ed. Albano Sorbelli. Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, Louis died in 1362. Joanna\u2019s third husband, James 12. Citt\u00e0 di Castello: Tipi dell\u2019Editore S. Lapi, 1903. of Majorca, was given no authority in government. James\u2014who had recently escaped from fourteen years\u2019 Villani, Mattreo. Cronica, 5 vols., ed. Ignazio Moutier. Florence: imprisonment in an iron cage by his uncle, Peter IV of Magheri, 1926. Aragon\u2014was half mad and periodically violent. He soon returned to Spain, and from 1362 to 1375 Joanna Studies ruled alone. Despite minor rebellions initiated by her sister Maria, who was the widow of Charles of Durazzo, De Feo, Italo. Giovanna d\u2019Angi\u00f2, regina di Napoli. Naples: F. and by Maria\u2019s sons, the realm achieved a measure of Fiorentino, 1968. peace. In 1368\u20141370, Urban V briefly returned to Italy from Avignon, with Joanna\u2019s protection. L\u00e9onard, \u00c9mile G. Histoire de Jeanne Ire, reine de Naples, comtesse de Provence (1343\u20131382), 3 vols. Paris: Picard, In 1378, Urban VI, formerly archbishop of Bari and 1932\u20131936. Joanna\u2019s subject, became pope and quickly indicated his intention to revive and support the Hungarian claim to \u2014\u2014. Les Angevins de Naples. Paris: Presses Universitaires de Naples. Accordingly, when a rival pope, Clement VII, France, 1954. was elected, Joanna took Clement\u2019s part; and her next husband, Otto of Brunswick, proved entirely willing to Louis the Great, King of Hungary and Poland, ed. S. B. Vardy, persecute Urban\u2019s followers. Urban reacted by excom- Geza Grosschmid, and Leslie. S. Domonkos. New York: municating Joanna and conceding her throne to Louis of Columbia University Press, 1986. Hungary. Charles III of Durazzo (nephew of Maria and the late elder Charles) encouraged Louis, so, although Carola M. Small Charles III was her nearest relative, Joanna excluded him from the succession. Instead, with Clement VII\u2019s JO\u00c3O I, KING OF PORTUGAL approval, she bequeathed all her rights to Louis of An- (1357?\u20131433) Jo\u00e3o, the illegitimate son of Pedro I and Teresa Lou- ren\u00e7o, was born probably in Lisbon on 14 August 1357 and died there on 14 August 1433. In 1363, when he was still a child, he became the master of the Order of Avis. In normal circumstances, he would never have ac- ceded to the throne, but the situation created in the latter years of Fernando I\u2019s reign (1367\u20131383) opened a crisis of succession. By his marriage to Leonor Teles in 1372, Fernando had a daughter, Beatriz (1372\u2013ca. 1409), who married Juan I of Castile in 1383. Under Fernando, Por- tugal had three wars with Castile, and this marriage was 375","JO\u00c3O I, KING OF PORTUGAL were born Duarte (1391), Pedro (1392), Henrique (1394, known as Prince Henry the Navigator), Jo\u00e3o (1400), and intended to settle the conflict between the two countries. Fernando (1402). In 1415, four years after the peace The marriage contract laid down that Portugal would treaty with Castile had been signed, Jo\u00e3o I, encouraged be ruled by the first heir born to Beatriz, and until the by his minister of the treasury, complied with the wishes child reached fourteen, Queen Leonor would govern of his sons and led an expedition to Ceuta in Morocco, the country as regent. This marriage gave Juan I the taking the city. This initiated the period of Portuguese possibility of one day sitting on the Portuguese throne. expansion in which all the princes were deeply involved. However, Queen Leonor, in collusion with her lover, Between 1418 and 1427, Prince Henrique promoted the Jo\u00e3o Fernandes Andeiro, kept an oligarchic rule that discovery of the islands of Madeira and the Azores. excluded the merchants from the privy council. These, fearing the regency by the queen, persuaded Jo\u00e3o to Jo\u00e3o I was a popular king who listened to his sub- kill Andeiro in order to force an accommodation with jects and tried to satisfy their demands. The dynastic her. But, following the death of Andeiro and the rising crisis of 1383\u20131385 gave Portugal its independence of the people against her, the queen appealed to Juan I, and enabled the productive classes\u2014traders, merchants, who invaded Portugal. and artisans\u2014to take a leading role in the development of the country. By relieving the people of Lisbon and Jo\u00e3o immediately organized the defense of Lisbon, Oporto from the payment of tithes and seigniorial rights, relying on the military support of Nuno\u2019 Alvares Pereira Jo\u00e3o I paved the way for a new age. He was a cultivated (Nun\u2019 Alvares), a knight who proved to be a supreme man and wrote a remarkable treatise on hunting (Livro strategist. The peasants, artisans, and merchants rallied da montaria) that reflects his views on court life and a to Dom Jo\u00e3o\u2019s cause, and the younger sons of noble pre-Renaissance awareness of the value of the human families with no land of their own joined his forces. body. While Jo\u00e3o held Lisbon against the Castilian army, Nun\u2019 Alvares fought in the south and eventually neared Further Reading Almada, close to Lisbon, wreaking havoc upon the Cas- tilians. On 3 September 1384, Juan I, fearing the plague Bernardino, T. A revolu\u00e7\u00e3o portuguesa de 1383\u20131385. Lisbon, that had smitten his camp, lifted the siege of the city, 1984. which had lasted four months, and withdrew to Castile. Cortes (parliament) were convened at Coimbra to solve Eannes de Zurara, G. Cr\u00f3nica da tomada de Ceuta por el rei dom the problem of succession. And while Jo\u00e3o besieged Jo\u00e3o I. Lisbon, 1915. the castles loyal to Beatriz, Nun\u2019 Alvares harassed the Castilian loyalists. Lopes, F. Cr\u00f3nica de dom Pedro. Rome, 1966. \u2014\u2014. Cr\u00f3nica del rei dom Johan I. 2 vols. Lisbon, 1968\u201373. Jo\u00e3o and Nun\u2019 Alvares arrived in Coimbra on 3 \u2014\u2014. Cr\u00f3nica de dom Fernando. Lisbon, 1975. Peres, D. Dom March 1385. At the cartes, the lawyer Jo\u00e3o Afonso das Regras argued Jo\u00e3o\u2019s case, showing that the other Jo\u00e3o I. Oporto, 1983. pretenders, the sons of Pedro I and In\u00eas de Castro, were Su\u00e1rez Fern\u00e1ndez, L. Historia del reinado de Juan I de Castilla. illegitimate in view of the irregular relationship between their parents. As for Juan I, his invasion of Portugal had 2 vols. Madrid, 1977. disqualified him, because it was a breach of the treaty. Having disposed of the argument of rights by birth, Jo\u00e3o Luis Rebelo das Regras claimed that since Jo\u00e3o was the one who had taken up arms to defend the realm from the Castil- JOHANN VON W\u00dcRZBURG (fl. ca. 1300) ian invader, he deserved to be king. By acclamation he became Jo\u00e3o I on 6 April 1385. As in most cases of medieval German literature, hardly anything is known about the author, except for some Yet the war with Castile was not over. Following self-references in his courtly romance, Wilhelm von Fernando\u2019s previous policy of getting military support \u00d6sterreich. He mentions that he was born in W\u00fcrzburg from England, Jo\u00e3o I gained some assistance from and worked as a scribe, perhaps for the counts of Ho- the duke of Lancaster. An English contingent fought henberg and Haigerloch, especially Count Albrecht von alongside the Portuguese in the battle of Aljubarrota Haigerloch (d. 1298). He also expresses his thanks to (14 August 1385), which was a decisive victory for a citizen of Esslingen, Dieprecht, for helping him with the Portuguese. Portugal\u2019s ties with England were his work. Wilhelm von \u00d6sterreich was completed in strengthened by the Treaty of Windsor (9 May 1386), May of 1314 and was dedicated to the Dukes Leopold a military alliance between the two countries. This was and Frederick of Austria. It appears to have been rather followed by the marriage of Jo\u00e3o I to Philippa of Lan- popular, since it has come down to us in a large number caster (1359\u20131415), daughter of John of Gaunt, duke of manuscripts (in Gieflen, Gotha, The Hague, Heidel- of Lancaster, on 2 February 1387. From this marriage berg, etc.). In total, there are ten complete manuscripts and ten fragments extant. Wilhelm von \u00d6sterreich is a biographical romance combining chivalrous with amorous adventutes pro- 376","viding a mythical-historical background for the ruling JOHANNES VON TEPL House of Hapsburg. Duke Leopold of Austria and the heathen king Agrant of Zyzia make a pilgrimage to the Further Reading holy site of John of Ephesus to pray for an heir. They meet by chance and make their sacrifices together. Brackert, Helmut: \u201cDa stuont daz minne wol gezam,\u201d Zeitschrift Leopold\u2019s wife delivers a son, Wilhelm, and Agrant\u2019s fur deutsche Philologie, Sonderheft, 93 (1974): 1\u201318. wife has a daughter, Aglye. The goddess Venus awakens love in both children through dreams and instigates Juergens, Albrecht: \u2018Wilhelm von \u00d6sterreich\u2019. Johanns von W\u00fcrz- Wilhelm to leave home on a search for Aglye. After burg \u2018Historia Poetica von 1314 und Aufgabenstellung einer exotic travels he meets Aglye, and the children fall narrativen F\u00fcrstenlehre. Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 1990. in love. Her father, Agrant, separates them, however, because he wants to marry his daughter to a heathen Johanns von W\u00fcrzburg \u201cWilhelm von \u00d6sterreich. \u201cAus der prince. The lovers exchange an extensive correspon- Gothaer Hs., ed. Ernst Regel. Berlin: Weidmann, 1906; rpt. dence that documents the high level of literacy that Zurich: Weidmann, 1970. members of the higher aristocracy could acquire in the later Middle Ages. Aglye is twice promised as wife to Mayser, Eugen. Studien zur Dichtung Johanns von W\u00fcrzburg. heathen princes, but Wilhelm kills them both in battles Berlin: Ebering, 1931. and jousts. Only after he has liberated Queen Crispin of Belgalgan\u2019s kingdom of monsters are the lovers able to Ridder, Klaus. Mittelhochdeutsche Minne- und Aventiure-ro- meet again. Soon afterwards a massive battle involves mane: Fiktion, Geschichte und literarische Tradition im the heathen and Christian forces, which concludes sp\u00e4th\u00f6fischen Roman: Reinfried von Braunschweig, Wilbelm with the Christians\u2019 victory and the heathens\u2019 baptism. von \u00d6sterreich, Friedrich von Schwaben. Berlin: de Gruyter, Finally, King Agrant agrees with the marriage of Aglye 1998. and Wilhelm, to whom a son is born called Friedrich. Wilhelm dies thereafter when he is ambushed by an Straub, Veronika: Entstehung und Entwicklung des fr\u00fchneuho- envious brother-in-law. Aglye\u2019s heart breaks when she chdeut schen Prosaromans. Studien zur Prosaaufl\u00f6sung hears the news and dies as well. \u2018Wilbelm von \u00d6sterreich\u2019. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1974. Wilhelm experiences a large number of allegorical Wentzlaff-Eggebert, Friedrich-Wilhelm: Kreuzzugsdichtung des adventures throughout his quest for his beloved. These, Mittelalters. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, I960, pp. 290\u2013293. and other aspects, are often commented on by the narra- tor, who fully enjoyed the use of the so-called gebl\u00fcmter Albrecht Classen Stil (flowery style). Johann von W\u00fcrzburg refers to Gottfried von Straflburg, Wolfram von Eschenbach, JOHANNES VON TEPL and Rudolf von Ems as his literary models. He also (ca. 1350\u2013early 15th c.) knows Albrecht\u2019s J\u00fcngeren Titurel and other thirteenth century romances. Born in German and Czech-speaking Bohemia, Tepl (also known as Johannes von Saaz or Johannes Henslini Wilhelm von \u00d6sterreich displays a surprising open- de Sitbor) has been identified as the author of the Acker- ness toward the heathen culture, although the paradigm mann aus B\u00f6hmen (The Bohemian Plowman) by means of Christianity as the only true religion is not abandoned of the acrostic IOHANNES, and by the signature de in favor of global tolerance. Johann von W\u00fcrzburg Tepla (\u201cof Tepl\u201d) in a letter accompanying the work enjoyed considerable success with his work, which sent to friend Peter Rothirsch of Prague. Appointments glorifies the House of Austria and combines the exotic as rector of the Latin school and notary of the cities world of the Orient with the world of Arthurian romance. of Saaz and later Prague-Neustadt show Tepl to have The text was copied far into the fifteenth century and been literate in both Czech and Latin as well as Ger- discussed by other writers such as P\u00fcterich of Reichert- man. Besides the Ackermann aus B\u00f6hmen, only a few shausen and Ulrich Fuetrer. Anton Sorg printed a prose German and Latin verses, plus parts of a Latin votive version in 1481 and 1491 in Augsburg, which was also office (1404), have been identified as Tepl\u2019s work. It is reprinted, probably in Wittenberg in 1530\u20131540. Wil- unclear whether the Czech Tkadlecek (ca. 1407), a text helm and Aglye, the main characters in the romance, similar to the Ackermann in which a weaver laments the are portrayed in the fifteenth-century frescoes on Castle loss of his unfaithful sweetheart, might also have been Runkelstein as ideal lovers, next to Tristan and Isolde, composed by him. The Ackermann is preserved whole and Wilhelm of Orleans and Amelie. or in part in sixteen manuscript editions, mostly of up- per German provenance, as well as in seventeen early See also Gottfried von Stra\u00dfburg; printed editions. The Pfister edition of 1460 is one of Wolfram von Eschenbach the two earliest printed books in German. The work, an audacious debate with death, is framed as a legal proceeding in which a grief-stricken widower, a \u201cplowman of the pen\u201d (i.e., a scribe) brings a com- plaint against the justice and justification of death in God\u2019s world order. The plowman bewails the loss of his virtuous young wife, Margaretha, and rails at Death\u2019s cruelty and unfairness. In sixteen rounds of spirited debate, the plowman condemns Death while defend- ing life, love, and man, God\u2019s finest creation. Death, in his turn, denies any dignity of man and any right to 377","JOHANNES VON TEPL of an autonomous kingdom of Ireland (and from 1185 he bore the title Lord of Ireland), but with the deaths of life, vaunting, instead, his own power and arbitrariness. his elder brothers he aspired to wider ambitions. After Only in chapter 33 is the argument silenced when God the death of the childless Richard (1199) he became is called on to deliver a verdict in the case. Because the king of England, duke of Normandy, duke of Aquitaine, plaintiff has fought well, God awards him honor, but and count of Anjou, and he prevailed against the claims gives the victory to Death by affirming the status quo. of his nephew Arthur of Brittany, son of his brother The work ends with an impassioned prayer for the soul Geoffrey. of Margaretha. It was a difficult inheritance. The financial burdens The emotional verisimilitude of the argumentation of Richard\u2019s reign had been extraordinarily heavy, for and the correspondence of biographical data in the text his crusade and ransom, and for the defense of the to certain facts of Tepl\u2019s life have raised the question continental dominions against persistent attacks and whether the work might not have been precipitated by an subversion by Philip II (Philip Augustus) of France. The actual bereavement of the author, perhaps his first wife, revenues of England, vital for survival, were devalued the mother of his two oldest children. Records show by inflation. The balance of advantage in resources and Tepl to have been survived by a widow, Clara (possibly influence had tipped decisively in favor of the French a second wife), and five children. The autobiographical crown. Normandy was war-weary, weakened, and thesis seems to be at odds, however, with the tone of demoralized; when Philip renewed his attack in 1204, the author\u2019s letter to Rothirsch, which emphasizes the the will to resist suddenly collapsed and John retired to stylistic devices and rhetorical strategies deployed in England without putting up a fight. the work. John never reconciled himself to the loss of Nor- More significant than the unresolved autobiographi- mandy. His efforts to accumulate a war chest were cal issue is the controversy over whether the arguments remarkably successful, but achieved by a relentless and and style place the work further within the realm of late ruthless exploitation of royal rights over subjects that medieval or of early humanist thought. Although the- exposed the arbitrary nature of many of his royal powers matically and formally the Ackermann remains largely and called their legitimacy into question. His barons, indebted to earlier medieval traditions, stylistically its seeking to rebuild family fortunes after the loss of their language echos that of Johann von Neumarkt\u2019s chancel- Norman estates, had to bid expensively for royal favors lery German, which shows the strong influence of the granted, or withheld, capriciously. Latin rhetorical forms of Italian humanists. Disaffection was for a time deflected by John\u2019s Further Reading resistance to Pope Innocent III, who set aside a royal nominee for the archbishopric of Canterbury and instead Hahn, Gerhard. Der Ackermann aus B\u00f6hmen des Johannes von appointed Stephen Langton, whom the king rejected. Tepl. Ertr\u00e4ge der Forschung 215. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftli- John\u2019s stand was generally supported by the laity, who che Buchgesellschaft, 1984. patiently endured an interdict for six years. John con- fidently disregarded a sentence of excommunication Hruby, Anton\u00edn. Der Ackermann und seine Vorlage. Munich: while his coffers were augmented by the appropriated Beck, 1971. revenues of the clergy. That the English clergy should be so completely at his mercy was, however, a chilling H\u00fcbner, Arthur. \u201cDeutsches Mittelalter und italienische Renais- demonstration of royal power to override established sance im Ackermann aus B\u00f6hmen.\u201d Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Deutsch- rights, and there was a growing feeling among some kunde 51 (1937): 225\u2013239. of the barons that their own safety and their families\u2019 fortunes depended on getting rid of him. Jafre, Samuel. \u201cDes Witwers Verlangen nach Rat: Ironie und Struktureinheit im Ackermann aus B\u00f6hmen.\u201d Daphnis 7 Faced by incipient rebellions and an invasion fleet (1978): 1\u201353. mustered by Philip of France, John could not ignore the ultimate papal weapon, a sentence of deposition. He ac- Johannes von Saaz. Der Ackermann aus B\u00f6hmen, ed. G\u00fcnther cepted the pope\u2019s terms for lifting the sanctions and in Jungbluth. 2 vols. Heidelberg: Winter, 1969\u20131983. addition offered his kingdoms of England and Ireland as fiefs of the papacy, in effect putting them under the Johannes von Tepl. Death and the Plowman; or, The Bohemian protection of the Holy See. Plowman, trans. Ernst N. Kirrmann from the Modern Ger- man version of Alois Bernt. Chapel Hill: University of North John\u2019s carefully nurtured grand strategy for the de- Carolina Press, 1958. feat of the French king collapsed when his allies, the count of Flanders and his nephew Emperor Otto IV Schwarz, Ernst, ed. Der Ackermann aus B\u00f6hmen des Johannes of Germany, were decisively defeated by Philip at the von Tepl und seine Zeit. Wege der Forschung 143. Darmstadt: Battle of Bouvines, May 1214. Open rebellion erupted in Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1968. Anne Winston-Allen JOHN (1167\u20131216; r. 1199\u20131216) Born on December 24,1167, he was the youngest of the four sons of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine to reach manhood. His father intended him to be the ruler 378","England. At a moment when neither side could be sure JOHN II THE GOOD of winning, an attempt at a negotiated peace produced Magna Carta (June 1215), by which the crown\u2019s claims Charles V and Jeanne, who married Charles the Bad to executive privilege were brought within the bounds of of Navarre. agreed law. As a peace formula it failed, and John had it annulled by the pope. He was winning the civil war In the early campaigns of the Hundred Years\u2019 War, when he died (October 1216). Loyalists reissued Magna John\u2019s first important command was at the abortive Carta to rally support for his infant son, Henry III. siege of Aiguillon in 1345. He was much attached to his mother and to the strong Burgundian faction in French While curtailing the possibility of tyranny Magna politics, with which she was aligned. When Philip VI Carta also recognized the advantages of efficient royal finally tried to mollify the dissident northwestern no- government, which John had done much to foster. He bility in the 1340s and reduce the role of Burgundians, understood administration and did much in a short reign John remained linked to the latter in opposition to his to refine and rationalize it. He created a precedent (in father. the Thirteenth of 1207) for a proper taxation system. He created the navy that thwarted Philip\u2019s projected inva- John\u2019s accession to the throne in 1350, soon followed sion. He failed, however, at the crucial arts of govern- by the summary execution of the constable Raoul de ment in the management of men and what was currently Brienne, revived the old tension between the Valois recognized as \u201cgood lordship.\u201d monarchy and the northwestern nobles. Leadership of the opposition passed to the \u00c9vreux branch of the royal John has been portrayed as a monster of depravity. family, headed by Charles of Navarre, who engineered This is a fanciful elaboration of a distorting half-truth. the murder of the new constable, Charles of Spain, in He was no more domineering than his father and brother, 1354. After two provisional settlements with his danger- and hardly more morally reprehensible, but he lacked ous son-in-law, John finally lost patience and arrested their redeeming qualities. He was crafty and vindictive Charles in April 1356, executing several of his Norman and instead of charismatic leadership could offer only allies and plunging northwestern France into civil war. dogged determination. Failing to inspire loyalty, he tried to dominate by menace and\u2014constantly fearing John also attracted criticism for his style of govern- disloyalty\u2014he fed his fears by a corrosive suspicion. He ment, which gave great responsibility to the heads of is a classic case of a ruler undone not merely by adverse administrative bodies, who tended to be men of modest circumstances but by defects of personality. social origins. Their continuity in office contrasted with that of the royal council, which frequently changed in See also Eleanor of Aquitaine; Henry II; composition as John had to appoint representatives of Innocent III, Pope; Philip II Augustus political factions rather than trusted men of his own choosing. Reformers on this council resented their lack Further Reading of control over the administrative bodies. Bourgeois reformers, led by Parisians, harbored personal and po- Hollister, C. Warren. \u201cKing John and the Historians.\u201d Journal of litical resentments against these royal officials. Noble British Studies 1 (1961): 1\u201329 reformers had an agenda based on class and geography as well as governmental philosophy, while clergy were Holt, J.C. The Northerners: A Study in the Reign of King John. found in both camps. London: Oxford University Press, 1961 These opposition groups both played a role in the Holt, J.C. Magna Carta and Medieval Government. London: Estates General of 1355, but their failure to generate Hambledon, 1985 [collected papers especially valuable are needed revenues provoked the king into policies that \u201cKing John,\u201d first published in 1963, and \u201cThe End of the alienated both groups during 1356. In September, Anglo-Norman Realm,\u201d from 1975] with an army consisting of his own noble support- ers, John II met defeat and capture at the hands of an Turner, Ralph V. King John. New York: Longman, 1994 Anglo-Gascon army at Poitiers. For the next four Warren, W.L. King John. 2d ed. London: Eyre Methuen, 1978 years, he was a prisoner in England, trying to nego- Warren, W.L. \u201cPainters King John Forty Years On.\u201d Haskins tiate a treaty that would secure his release, while his son Charles struggled to preserve some authority for Society Journal I (1989): 1\u20139. the monarchy in Paris. W.L. Warren As the bourgeois reformers showed increasing hostil- ity to the nobles, and as the nobles became disillusioned JOHN II THE GOOD (1319\u20131364) with their erratic leader Charles the Bad, the crown managed to recruit important dissident nobles and re- King of France, 1350\u201364. The elder son of Philip VI built its power around a new coalition. This realignment and Jeanne of Burgundy, John became heir to the throne occurred during the last six years of John\u2019s reign, but when his father succeeded to it in 1328. In 1332, John historians differ as to whether he or his son deserves married Bonne de Luxembourg, daughter of the king credit for the royal recovery. Released for a large ransom of Bohemia. Before she died of plague in 1349, Bonne bore him nine children, among whom were the future 379","JOHN II THE GOOD resource for understanding the world of the 12th-century schools and lists the masters with whom John studied. under the terms of the Treaty of Br\u00e9tigny in 1360, John His Policraticus combines political theory, a handbook had to contend with the violence of thousands of unem- for government, criticism of court life, and a program ployed soldiers. After considering a crusade to lure them of education for courtiers. In the Historia pontificalis, away, he secured from the Estates in December 1363 John offers a history focused on the papal court from the an important new tax, the fouage, to finance an army Synod of Reims (1148) through the year 1152. Among to restore order. Continuing unresolved problems with his other writings are a vita of Anselm of Bec and a brief England were complicated when the king\u2019s son Louis, vita of Becket, probably meant to serve as preface to a a hostage for his father\u2019s ransom, broke parole and fled. collection of the murdered archbishop\u2019s letters. Some John returned to captivity in England and died there in 325 of John\u2019s letters survive. the spring of 1364. See also Ab\u00e9lard, Peter; Becket, Thomas; See also Charles II the Bad; Charles V the Wise Gilbert of Poitiers; Henry II Further Reading Further Reading Bordonove, Georges. Jean le Bon et son temps. Paris: Ramsay, John of Salisbury. Memoirs of the Papal Court, ed. and trans. 1980. Marjorie Chibnall. London: Nelson, 1956. Cazelles, Raymond. \u201cJean II le Bon: quel homme? quel roi?\u201d \u2014\u2014. The Metalogicon of John of Salisbury: A Twelfth-Century Revue historique 509 (1974): 5\u201326. Defense of the Verbal and Logical Arts of the Trivium, trans. D.D. McGarry. Berkeley: University of California Press, \u2014\u2014. Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 politique, noblesse et couronne sous Jean le Bon 1955. et Charles V. Geneva: Droz, 1982. \u2014\u2014. The Letters of John of Salisbury, 1: The Early Letters Deviosse, Jean. Jean le Bon. Paris: Fayard, 1985. (1153\u20131161), ed. W.J. Millor and H.E. Butler, rev. Christopher Henneman, John Bell. Royal Taxation in Fourteenth Century N.L. Brooke. London: Nelson, 1955. France: The Captivity and Ransom of John II, 1356\u201370. \u2014\u2014. The Letters of John of Salisbury, 2: The Later Letters Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1976. (1163\u20131180), ed. W.J. Millor and Christopher N. L. Brooke. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979. John Bell Henneman, Jr. Smalley, Beryl. The Beckett Conflict and the Schools: A Study JOHN OF SALISBURY of Intellectuals in Politics. Oxford: Blackwell, 1973, pp. (ca. 1115\u20131180) 87\u2013108. John was born in Old Sarum, England, and entered a Webb, C.C.J. John of Salisbury. London: Methuen, 1932. clerical career as a young man, studying in the schools Wilkes, Michael, ed. The World of John of Salisbury. Oxford: of Paris from 1136 until the mid-1140s. There, he heard lectures by Peter Ab\u00e9lard, Robert of Melun, William of Blackwell, 1984. Conches, Thierry of Chartres, Gilbert of Poitiers, and other masters of the day. He then traveled to Rome, Grover A. Zinn where he entered the service of the pope. In 1148, he attended the synod at Reims where Gilbert of Poitiers JOHN OF SEVILLE (fl. 1133\u20131135) was tried for heresy, a trial that John recounts in his His- toria pontificalis. In 1153\u201354, he returned to England, John of Seville was an astrologer and translator of where he served as secretary to Theobald, archbishop of scientific works from Arabic into Latin. His full name Canterbury, and to his successor, Thomas Becket. John appears to have been Iohannes His-palensis et Lunensis was part of one of the most striking public conflicts (or Limiensis). Attempts to identify him with Avendauth, of royal and ecclesiastical power in the 12th century, the collaborator of Dominigo Gundisalvo, John David that between Becket and King Henry II Plantagen\u00eat of of Toledo, and other Johns are not convincing. He is England. Becket\u2019s exile to France took John of Salis- known only through his translations, which include Abu\u00af bury there as well. John was present in Christ Church Ma\u2018shar\u2019s Greater Introduction to Astrology (1133), cathedral, Canterbury, when Becket was attacked, but Al-Fargha\u00af n\u00af\u0131\u2019s Rudiments of Astronomy (1135), \u2018Urnar he fled the scene before the actual murder. In 1176, John ibn al-Farrukha\u00af n\u2019s Universal Book (on astrology), Al- was consecrated bishop of Chartres and died there in Qab\u00af\u0131s\u00af\u0131\u2019s Introduction to Astrology, Tha\u00af bit ibn Qurra\u2019s 1180. He knew well the worlds of episcopal patronage, On Talismans (De imaginibus) and astrological works education in the schools of Paris, the papal and royal by M\u00afsha\u00af \u2019alla\u00af h and Sahl ibn Bishr. These were the most courts, and the web of personal and professional friend- important texts on astrology in the Arabic world, and ships woven by the exchange of letters. Each of these established Latin astrology on a firm scientific footing. circles influenced his life and writings. To them, John added his own Epitome of Astrology or Liber quadripartitus (1135), which covered all the main The Metalogicon, a spirited defense of the Trivium, aspects of astrology and, having four books, was clearly with emphasis upon the discipline of logic, is a valuable meant to be analogous to, and perhaps to replace, the 380","best-known text on astrology from classical antiquity, JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY Ptolemy\u2019s Quadripartitum. Jean de Cambrai (\ufb02. 1397\u20131438). John, Duke of Berry, John appears to have ventured also into the field of life-size statue. \u00a9 Erich Lessing\/Art Resource, New York. medicine, for he is credited with a translation of the medical portion of Pseudo-Aristotle\u2019s Secret of Secrets, and 1376, John never regained Charles\u2019s full confidence. On the Regimen of Health, and Qusta ibn La\u00af qa\u00af \u2019s On With the accession of Charles VI in 1380, however, the Difference between the Spirit and the Soul. These John was officially accorded a place in the government medical texts are the only works that put their author and began to act as mediator between his two surviving into a historical context, since the first is dedicated brothers, the dukes of Anjou and Burgundy. to a queen of Spain with the initial T.\u2014often identi- fied with Tharasia, daughter of Alfonso VI of Castile In November 1380, John was named royal lieuten- and Le\u00f3n, who married Henry of Burgundy, count of ant-general in Languedoc, where his officers and his Portugal (1057\u20131114), and the second is dedicated to policies soon made him unpopular. He rarely visited Raymond, archbishop of Toledo (1125\u20131152), and the Midi personally, and his lack of direct involvement thereby is the earliest text to have some connection produced near-anarchy in the province. When the king with the cathedral. resolved to go to the south in person in 1389, John resigned his lieutenancy. The details of John\u2019s political John\u2019s astrological translations are pedantically behavior, especially in the years following the assas- literal, suggesting that Arabic may have been his first sination of his nephew Louis of Orl\u00e9ans in 1407, show language. The medical translations are more fluent, and him to have been unethical, unreliable, and selfish. the excerpt from the Secret of Secrets is preceded by a Despite this evidence, contemporaries viewed him as preface in which the translator justifies departing from gregarious, eloquent, and philanthropic. He did show the literal sense of the original. Both the astrological both consistency and determination in his ecclesiasti- and the medical texts remained popular throughout the cal policy, being the French prince most committed to Middle Ages and several of the astrological texts, includ- ending the papal Schism. ing the Epitome, were printed in the Renaissance. After April 1404, as the king\u2019s sole surviving pa- Further Reading ternal uncle, John enjoyed a prestigious position and important role at court, serving as mediator between the Lemay, R. Abu\u00af Mashar and Latin Aristotelianism in the Twelfth Burgundian and Armagnac parties, particularly after the Century. Beirut, 1962. murder of the duke of Orl\u00e9ans. He was married twice: in 1360 to Jeanne d\u2019Armagnac and, after her death, in Thorndike, L. \u201cJohn of Seville.\u201d Speculum 34 (1959): 20\u201338. Charles Burnett JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY (1340\u20131416) The son of John II the Good of France and Bonne de Luxembourg, John was born in the castle of Vincennes on November 30, 1340. His father named him count of Poitou in 1356, but when this territory was ceded to England by the treaty of 1360 John became duke of Berry and Auvergne. During the years 1360\u201364, he was one of the hostages sent to England after the release of his father from captivity. In 1369, John was charged with guarding the western frontier to keep the English contained within Poitou, and his brother Charles V reassigned him this county as an incentive to recover it from the English. His ineptitude at military strategy soon became clear. In 1374, Charles V\u2019s attitude toward John changed, perhaps because of a distaste for his private life. In October, when arrang- ing for the succession, Charles V ordered that John not be one of his son\u2019s guardians if the dauphin, the future Charles VI, should succeed to the throne as a minor. De- spite some rapprochement between the brothers in 1375 381","JOHN, DUKE OF BERRY Longnon, Jean, and Raymond Cazelles. The Tr\u00e8s Riches Heures of Jean, Duke of Berry. New York: Braziller, 1969. 1389 to Jeanne de Boulogne. He died in Paris on June 15, 1416, leaving no male heirs. Meiss, Millard. French Painting the Time of Jean de Berry: The Late Fourteenth Century and the Patronage of the Duke. 2nd One of the greatest patrons in the history of art, John ed. 2 vols. London: Phaidon, 1969. was an inveterate collector\u2014of books, dogs, castles, tapestries, jewels, and objets d\u2019art, whether antique or \u2014\u2014, and Elizabeth H. Beatson. The Belles Heures of Jean, Duke contemporary. If he overtaxed his people, as has been of Berry. New York: Braziller, 1974. claimed, it was to transform his immense wealth into works of art. Probably the best-known work commis- Thomas, Marcel. The Grandes Heures of Jean, Duke of Berry. sioned by him is the unfinished Tr\u00e8s Riches Heures New York: Braziller, 1971. (Chantilly, Mus\u00e9e Cond\u00e9), illuminated by the limbourg brothers and Jean Colombe. The famous calendar illu- Richard C. Famiglietti minations in this manuscript picture some of the duke\u2019s William W. Kibler seventeen castles: Lusignan, Dourdan, H\u00f4tel de Nesle, Clain, \u00c9tampes, Saumur, the Louvre, and Vincennes. JOINVILLE, JEAN DE (1225\u20131317) Another favorite castle, Mehun-sur-Y\u00e8vre, dominates the Temptation of Christ scene. Other works illuminated Joinville\u2019s Vie de saint Louis, a French prose memoir by the brothers include the Tr\u00e8s Belles Heures de Notre by a powerful aristocrat, is one of our most valuable Dame (B.N. lat. 3093) and the Belles Heures (NewYork, accounts of noble society in the 13th century. Joinville\u2019s The Cloisters). They also contributed a miniature of father was seneschal of Champagne, an office he in- the duke setting off on a journey in the Petites Heures herited. In 1248, he decided to take part in the Seventh (B.N. lat. 18014) and some scenes in grisaille for a Crusade and thus met St. Louis, becoming a close friend. Bible historiale (B.N. fr. 166). Another famous book of The two endured captivity together, then Joinville served hours associated with the duke is the Grandes Heures as royal steward at Acre (1250\u201354) before returning to (B.N. lat. 919), commissioned in 1407 and completed France. Joinville began his memoirs of the king in 1272, in 1409. Unfortunately, its original sixteen large min- just after Louis\u2019s death, but undertook the second part iatures, possibly by Jacquemart de Hesdin, who had (composed 1298\u20131309) when Jeanne of Navarre, wife illuminated the Heures de Bruxelles (before 1402) for of Philip IV, requested it. the duke, have been lost. The list of artists contributing small miniatures reads like a who\u2019s who of the day, Joinville\u2019s narrative has many virtues. As an im- including the Boucicaut and Bedford Masters, as well portant noble, he advised the king during the crusade; as the Pseudo-Jacquemart. Other artists in the duke\u2019s as a warrior, he fought in it. Although a close friend, employ were his master architect Gui de Dammartin, Joinville, unlike other biographers of Louis, respected Andr\u00e9 Beauneveu, and Jean de Cambrai, who sculpted but was not overawed by the king and sometimes disap- the duke\u2019s tomb. proved of his actions, particularly when Louis\u2019s saintli- ness conflicted with what Joinville perceived to be his John\u2019s extensive library included thirty-eight chi- duties as king, aristocrat, and layman. Louis\u2019s decision valric romances, forty-one histories, as well as works to go on crusade in 1270 was one such occasion, but by Aristotle, Nicole Oresme, and Marco Polo. His there were others. Joinville felt free at the time to speak secular books were outnumbered by religious works, his mind and records a number of salty interchanges especially prayer books: fourteen Bibles, sixteen psal- between himself and his ruler. He was also candid about ters, eighteen breviaries, six missals, and fifteen books his own prejudices; he defended aristocratic privileges of hours. Of the over 300 illuminated manuscripts in and was contemptuous of bourgeois upstarts. His ob- the duke\u2019s library, some one hundred are extant today. servations are vivid, and his frankness makes the Vie Most of the other objects in his collections are known delightful reading. to us only through the extensive registers he caused to be kept after 1401. Joinville\u2019s work was overshadowed in his own day by Guillaume de Nangis\u2019s biography of Louis; of the See also Charles VI; John II the Good; three extant manuscripts, only one is medieval, a copy Limbourg Brothers of the presentation manuscript of 1309. Further Reading See also Louis IX Guiffrey, J. Inventaires de Jean, duc de Berry (1401\u20131416). 2 Further Reading vols. Paris, 1894\u201396. Joinville, Jean de. La vie de saint Louis, ed. Noel L. Corbett. Lacour, Ren\u00e9. Le gouvernement de 1\u2019apanage de Jean, duc de Sherbrooke: Naaman, 1977. Berry 1360\u20131416. Paris: Picard, 1934. \u2014\u2014 and Villehardouin. Chronicles of the Crusades, trans. Mar- Lehoux, Francoise. Jean de France, duc de Berri: sa vie, son garet R.B. Shaw. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963. action politique. 4 vols. Paris: Picard, 1966\u201368. Billson, Marcus K. \u201cJoinville\u2019s Histoire de Saint-Louis: Hagiog- raphy, History and Memoir.\u201d American Benedictine Review 31 (1980): 418\u201342. 382","Perret, Mich\u00e8le. \u2018\u201c\u00c0 la fin de sa vie ne fuz-je mie\u2019: Joinville\u2019s JUAN MANUEL Vie de Saint-Louis.\u201d Revue des sciences humaines 183 (1981): 16\u201337. century manuscripts, among them Manuscript 6376 in the Biblioteca Nacional in Madrid. This manuscript Leah Shopkow lacks the Cr\u00f3nic abreviada, which in turn was found by S\u00e1nchez Alonso (in MS. F. 81 [now 1356]), also in the JUAN MANUEL (1282\u20131348) Biblioteca Nacional. Both have served as the basis for the edition of Juan Manuel\u2019s Obras completas. Son of Alfonso X\u2019s younger brother, Manuel, and grandson of Fernando III; born in Escalona (Toledo) Of the preserved texts one must first cite the Libro in 1282. From a very young age, he participated both del cavallero et del escudero. Written before 1330, the in war (particularly in the advances on Murcia, which work is one of many encyclopedic treatises of the time. lasted from 1284 to 1339) and in politics, though not Similar to Ram\u00f3n Llull\u2019s Llibre de l\u2019ordre de cavalleria, without differences with his council. to which Juan Manuel seems to allude, the plot consists of the encounter between a young squire on his way to Along with his hectic political life during the reigns the court, and a former knight\u2014now a hermit\u2014who of Fernando IV (1295\u20131312) and Alfonso XI (1312\u2013 answers the young man\u2019s numerous questions. The 1350), which was largely motivated, as he himself says, hermit upholds knighthood as the most honorable estate by questions of onra [honor\/reputation] and facienda in this world and indoctrinates the squire through a brief [property\/wealth], Juan Manuel displayed an encyclo- discourse on chivalry; later, the former knight gives the pedic knowledge that was indicative of his desire to young man, now a novice caballero, a treatise on theol- emulate his uncle, Alfonso X, whom he admired from ogy, another on astrology, and several expositions on the an exclusively cultural (and not political) perspective. animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms; finally he tells He was also a devout man, influenced by the Dominican the young man about the sea and the land, ending with tradition, which he followed throughout the various an exaltation of creation as \u201cmanifestaci\u00f3n de la gloria didactic works of his career. After retiring from active de Dios\u201d (manifestation of God\u2019s glory). political life, Juan Manuel died in 1348; he is buried in the monastery at Pe\u00f1afiel, which he founded. Libro de los estados, finished in 1330, consists of two books distributed in three parts: the first book\u2019s In the general prologue to his works, the author hundred chapters, which address different religions expresses the philological\/critical anxiety that his texts and the estates of the lay population; the first fifty might be poorly copied, declaring that the authentic, chapters of the second book, concerning the different original books, against which any potentially confus- laws (among which only the Christian law is true) as ing transcripts can be compared, are in the convent at well as the mysteries of Christ and the estates of the Pe\u00f1afiel. Although this is essentially nothing more than secular clergy; and the fifty-first chapter of the second a repetition of what Nicol\u00e1s de Lira had already said, book, dedicated to religious orders and their regulations, this disclaimer serves as a mark of authenticity for Juan especially the orders of preaching friars and of lesser Manuel\u2019s work. With this notice, the author participates friars. The structure is that of a work within a work, in the medieval concept of an ethics of language op- all written using dialogue as a technique supported by posing the lie, and is thus able to forestall any willful the main characters: the pagan king Morob\u00e1n, the in- error on his part. For those inevitable involuntary er- fante Johas and his tutor\/teacher Tur\u00edn, and a Christian rors, he resorts to the topos of modesty\u2014already in use preacher named Julio. The basic framework is similar since antiquity\u2014attributing such lapses to his lack of to that of Barlaam y Josafat. Tur\u00edn, committed to intelligence. Juan Manuel manipulates the vernacular avoid having to address the concept of mortality, ends language in a fresh, renewed manner, and with a wider his phase of the prince\u2019s education by explaining the vocabulary and a more purified syntax than Alfonso X. meaning of death in front of a fortuitously discovered He is partial to concision and clarity, qualities he praises cadaver. Chapter 22 introduces the Castilian preacher in his uncle\u2019s writing, although he does experiment Julio, \u201comne muy letrado et muy entendido\u201d [a very with a more hermetic, obtuse style. The discovery of a educated and intelligent man] in matters of Christian skillful use of dialogue is frequently attributed to Juan doctrine. Julio claims to be tutor to Prince Juan, son Manuel, who arguably anticipates certain subtleties of of the infante Don Manuel, and from that moment on the Renaissance. he will carry the burden of Prince Johas\u2019s education. The work teaches that, in order to be saved, he who A list of Juan Manuel\u2019s works appears both in the did not keep the law of nature should follow Christian Pr\u00f3logo general and in the prologue to El conde Lu- law, which fulfilled Old Testament designs. This law is canor, although there are discrepancies between the two contained in the Holy Scriptures and is preached by the prologues with regard to the order and number of works church, whose accepted hierarchy, divided into \u201clegos\u201d listed. Without the lost Pe\u00f1afiel codex, what remains [the lay population] and \u201ceclesi\u00e1sticos\u201d [the clergy], is of the author\u2019s writings is found in various fourteenth- described in detail. 383","JUAN MANUEL known exempla. In the second part the style changes, and in its prologue the author praises the use of subtlety Cr\u00f3nic abreviada, written during the tutelage of Al- as a way of making the merit of his work known. Books fonso XI (around 1320), was thought lost until S\u00e1nchez 2, 3, and 4 are essentially one book of proverbs, and the Alonso found it in 1941. It is a summary of Alfonso X\u2019s fifth and final book is a general reflection on Christian Estoria de Espa\u00f1a, and though Juan Manuel claims to doctrine. It is difficult to separate the didactic from the follow his uncle\u2019s work step by step, it is actually much narrative; the work\u2019s rhetoric manages to overcome the more than just a faithful copy. dichotomy of the two elements. Libro de la caza, thought by some to be written late The sources\u2014especially of the exiemplos\u2014can be in the author\u2019s life, is a treatise on the art of falconry, found in stories of Oriental origin that, like the Discip- addressing the care, training, and medication of falcons lina clericalis, were well known in the Western world and hawks. Juan Manuel relates not only his knowledge through their Latin versions. It is important to remember of the hunt, but also his own personal experience, to that in Alfonso X\u2019s day Calila e Dinna and Sendebar had which he alludes in the text. already been translated into Castilian. Other works also circulated in medieval translations, including Aesop\u2019s Libro infinido, or Castigos y consejos a su hijo don fables, Barlaan e Josafat, Sintipas, the Gesta romano- Fernando (1337), is inscribed within the tradition of the rum, the Legenda aurea, which was used by preachers education of princes, although it also contains a strong who collected exempla, and contemporary works such dose of personal and autobiographical content. It refers as chronicles and bestiaries. frequently to Libro de los estados. Some of the exempla may come from oral sources Libro de las armas, or Libro de las tres razones, later recorded in some textual form selected by the written after 1335, addresses three issues: the meaning author. Others are indications of Juan Manuel\u2019s own of the coat of arms given to Juan Manuel\u2019s father; the originality as a creator, as well as his artistic manner of reason a person may knight others without having been reelaborating extant texts. knighted himself; and the content of Juan Manuel\u2019s conversation with King Sancho at his deathbed (1295). The purpose of the majority of Juan Manuel\u2019s writ- The author explains the symbolism of the coat of arms ings is to teach through pleasure (docere delectando); in (especially the angelic ala [wing]) that appeared in his several occasions, the author expresses his goal of mor- grandfather\u2019s prophetic vision while his father, Don ally attending to his readers, orienting their conduct\u2014in- Manuel, was in the womb. He relates various anecdotes cluding the increase of onras and faciendas\u2014according told both to his father and to himself, among them the to their estate. Consequently, and especially in El conde legend of Do\u00f1a Sancha de Arag\u00f3n, similar to the leg- Lucanor, the author filled his exiemplos with the most end of Saint Alexis. He concludes that both his uncle, useful and entertaining stories he knew, hoping that Alfonso X, and his father had wanted him to knight his readers would benefit from the work\u2019s palabras others during their lifetime. Finally, the author describes falagueras et apuestas (delightful and elegant words), Ring Sancho\u2019s deathbed speech, in which he tells Juan while at the same time taking in the cosas aprovechosas Manuel of the anguish caused by his parents\u2019 misfor- (useful things) mixed in. tune, and entrusts the young man to the king\u2019s wife Mar\u00eda and their son Fernando. This work, which has Starting in the thirteenth century, the exemplum been praised by Am\u00e9rico Castro as \u201cla primera p\u00e1gina, played a didactic role, offering models of behavior for \u00edntima y palpitante de una confesi\u00f3n escrita en castel- its readers. With Juan Manuel, however, the exemplum lano\u201d [the first intimate, true life confession written in becomes something much more: it is an explicitly the Spanish language], has recently been analyzed from structural, well-determined genre chosen consciously a literary perspective. by the author. Furthermore, it allows Juan Manuel to establish a perfect accord between the duelling narrative Tratado de la Asunci\u00f3n de la Virgen Mar\u00eda was likely and didactic elements, a desire already implicit in the the last work to leave Juan Manuel\u2019s pen. A brief theo- prologue\u2019s affirmations. logical treatise on the Christian miracle of the Virgin\u2019s Assumption, the work gives several reasons why \u201comne See also Llull, Ram\u00f3n del mundo no deve dubdar que sancta Mar\u00eda no sea en cielo\u201d [men in this world should not doubt that Saint Further Reading Mary is in heaven]. Caldera, E. \u201cRet\u00f3rica narrativa e did\u00e1ttica nel \u201cConde Lucanor,\u201d Finally, Libro del conde Lucanor, (or Libro de los Miscellanea di studi ispanici, 14 (1966\u201367), 5\u2013120. Enxiemplos del conde Lucanor et de Patronio), finished in 1335, has come down to the modern reader in a rather Catal\u00e1n, D. \u201cDon Juan Manuel ante el modelo alfons\u00ed. El testi- contaminated state. The preservation of five manu- monio de la Cr\u00f3nica abreviada\u201d In Juan Manuel Studies. Ed. scripts, all from the fifteenth century, attest to its wide I. Macpherson. London, 1977, 17\u201351. diffusion. The work is divided into five parts, of which the first is the most extensive, consisting of fifty-one Don Juan Manuel. VII Centenario. Murcia, 1982. 384","Gim\u00e9nez Soler, A. Don Juan Manuel. Biografia y estudio critico. JULIAN OF NORWICH Zaragoza, 1932. his mother\u2019s activities in Aquitaine from her base in Juan Manuel, Obras Compietas. Ed., prologue, and notes by J. Bourges. On December 13, 842, Judith witnessed the M. Blecua. Vols. 1\u20132. Madrid, 1983. strategic marriage of her son to Ermentrude (niece of Adalard, count of Tours). Charles soon enhanced this Rico, F., \u201cCr\u00edtica del texto y modelos de cultura en el Pr\u00f3logo declaration of independence by dispossessing his mother General de Don Juan Manuel.\u201d In Studia in honorem prof. M. of her lands and placing her in \u201cretirement\u201d at Tours, de Riquer. Vol. 1. Barcelona, 1990, 409\u2013423. probably in February, 843. She died there two months later, on April 19, 843, comforted, perhaps, that her Jes\u00fas Montoya Mart\u00ednez consistent efforts on behalf of her son had changed the course of Carolingian history. JUDITH, EMPRESS (ca. 800\u2013843) Acclaimed by several contemporary writers for both Adulated as a Rachel, vilified as a Jezebel, Empress her beauty and erudition, Judith also fostered Carolin- Judith (r. 819\u2013840) has likely suffered more than any gian learning. She arranged for Walahfrid Strabo to tutor other Carolingian from a polarized historiography. Pri- Charles from 829 to 838, and commissioned the sec- marily known as the second wife of Emperor Louis the ond book of Freculf of Lisieux\u2019s important Chronicle. Pious (r. 814\u2013840) and mother of King Charles the Bald Hrabanus Maurus\u2019s dedication of a commentary on the (r. 840\u2013877), she assumed a commanding role in the biblical books of Judith and Esther, as well as a figure volatile world of ninth-century Frankish politics, earning poem to Judith also testifies to her literary patronage, the respect of many, and the enmity of many more. and has supported the contention that she may have personally supervised the creation and expansion of Presented at the February, 819, Aachen assembly by Louis the Pious\u2019s court library. her parents (Welf, count of Alemannia, and the Saxon noblewoman Heilwig), a beautiful Judith caught the See also Lothair I; Rabanus Maurus; recently-widowed emperor\u2019s eye; they were married im- Walafrid Strabo mediately. Judith gave birth in 821 to a daughter, Gisela, but did not pose a real threat to her three stepsons until Further Reading producing a rival male heir, Charles, on June 13, 823. From that day forth she strove to procure a stable future Bischoff, Bernhard. \u201cBenedictine Monasteries and the Survival for her son (and herself) by arranging advantageous of Classical Literature.\u201d In Manuscripts and Libraries in the marriage alliances, installing relatives in key imperial Age of Charlemagne, trans. Michael Gorman. Cambridge, offices, and using her proximity to her husband on behalf England: Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 134\u2013160. of several influential courtiers. She achieved her great- est successes in Louis\u2019s territorial grants to Charles in Boshof, Egon. Ludwig der Fromme. Darmstadt: Primus, 1996. 829 (Alemannia), 832 (Aquitaine), and 837 (Neustria), Cabaniss, Allen. \u201cJudith Augusta and Her Time.\u201d Studies in followed by the actual crowning of Charles as \u201cking\u201d in August, 838. Among such auspicious occasions, English 10 (1969): 67\u2013109. however, lay a series of rebellions in 830 and 833\u2013834, Konecny, Silvia. Die Frauen des karolingischen K\u00f6nigshauses. each led by Louis\u2019s eldest son, Lothar, in an attempt to assert his own imperial authority. He and his followers Vienna: VWG\u00d6, 1976. focused much of their hostility on Judith, accusing her McKitterick, Rosamond. The Frankish Kingdoms under the in 830 of adultery and sorcery (charges later cleared by her oath of innocence at Aachen on February 2, 831), Carolingians, 751\u2013987. London: Longman, 1983. and banishing her to Poitiers. They exiled her again Nelson, Janet L. Charles the Bald. London: Longman, 1992. in the later revolt to a convent in Tortona, Lombardy. Ward, Elizabeth. \u201cCaesar\u2019s Wife: The Career of the Empress Lothar\u2019s overconfidence and the ephemeral help of his brothers (Louis and Pepin) assured his failure in both Judith, 819\u2013829.\u201d In Charlemagne\u2019s Heir: New Perspectives instances, however, leaving Judith and Charles several on the Reign of Louis the Pious (814\u2013840), eds. Peter Godman years to consolidate their position (and according to and Roger Collins. Oxford: Clarendon, 1990, pp. 205\u2013227. some accounts, to wreak revenge) before Louis died on June 20, 840. Steven A. Stofferahn Civil war ensued, despite Louis\u2019s revised division JULIAN OF NORWICH of the empire in 839 between Lothar and Charles. In (1342\/43\u2013after 1416) the end, it was the help of Louis the Bavarian (who had married Judith\u2019s sister, Emma, in 827) that made Mystical writer and the first known woman author in possible Charles\u2019s and Judith\u2019s victory over Lothar at English literature. Her book of Showings, or Revelations Fontenoy on June 25, 841. Afterward, Charles further of Divine Love, ranks with the best medieval English shored up his powerbase, benefiting particularly from prose and is a primary text in the literature of mysticism. It is extant in a short version, probably written first, and in an extended form, completed 20 years later. Biographical information about Julian is sparse. It is limited to tacts in her own text, mention in a few wills, and a passage in the Book of Margery Kempe. Julian\u2019s birthplace is unknown. The dialect in the oldest extant 385","JULIAN OF NORWICH copy text for a Julian edition. Colledge and Walsh (1978) opted for Paris, favoring its more conventionally correct copy of her book shows northern features, leading to rhetorical structures. Marion Glasscoe selected Sloane the conjecture that she may have come from Yorkshire. 1 for a student edition (2d ed. 1986). Glasscoe notes the Sometime between 1413 and 1416 Margery Kempe pitfalls of following, in disputed readings, either Sloane visited Julian and received counsel from her. As late 1 or Paris, or creating an eclectic text; nonetheless, she as 1416 Julian was living in Norwich in Norfolk as an finds special qualities to recommend reliance on Sloane anchoress, enclosed in a cell attached to the Church of 1, which, she says, often reflects \u201ca greater sense of theol- St. Julian. She may have received the name Julian upon ogy as a live issue at the heart of human creativity\u201d (1989: her entrance into the anchorhold. 119) thereby coming closer to Julian\u2019s central concern. On 8 May (or possibly 13 May) 1373, at the age of Theological approaches diverge widely. A plethora of 30 and a half, she fell seriously ill, most likely while still devotional books have been based on a surface reading at home. She then recalled having prayed in her youth of the Revelations, stressing Julian\u2019s optimism and over- for a bodily sickness, to prepare her for death, and for simplifying her doctrine of love. Her terms \u201csubstance\u201d the wounds of true contrition, natural compassion, and and \u201csensuality\u201d are often misunderstood. A misreading, resolute longing for God. Surrounded by her mother sometimes abetted by inaccurate translations, assumes and friends, and attended by a priest, she believed, with that by \u201csubstance\u201d Julian means the human soul and them, that she was about to die. Suddenly, however, by \u201csensuality\u201d the body or the five senses. Substance while she was looking at a crucifix, her health returned. designates, rather, \u201cthe truth of our being, body and Then followed a series of fifteen visions, mostly of the soul: the way we are meant to be, as whole persons\u201d crucified Christ. These were interrupted by attacks from (Pelphrey, 1982: 90): \u201cWhere the blessed soul of Christ the Devil, and then confirmed in a sixteenth and final is, there is the substance of all souls that will be saved showing. This experience gives the content to the short by Christ. . . . Our soul is made to be God\u2019s dwelling version of her book, in which she explains that the vi- place, and the dwelling place of the soul is God. . . . It sions were threefold in character\u2014visual, intellectual, is a high understanding inwardly to see and to know and spiritual or intuitive. The long version of the text that God our creator dwells in our soul; and a higher is enriched with 20 years of theological reflection, pas- understanding it is inwardly to see and to know that toral counseling, and spiritual growth. Her teachings our soul which is created dwells in God\u2019s substance, are oriented to the instruction of other believers, her of which substance, through God, we are what we are\u201d \u201ceven-Christians.\u201d (Long Text, ch. 54). The shorter version of Julian\u2019s book is extant in one Usually \u201csensuality\u201d refers to that human existence manuscript copy\u2014the 15th-century Amherst Manu- which becomes God\u2019s in the Incarnation: it is the \u201cplace\u201d script (BL Add. 37790). The longer text is complete in of the city of God, the glory of the Trinity abiding in three manuscripts: the Paris Manuscript (BN Fonds angl. collective humanity. Human beings are called to be 40), copied around 1650; and two Sloane manuscripts helpers or partners in the unfolding of what humanity (Sloane 1\u2014BL Sloane 2499, early 17th century; Sloane is meant to become\u2014a city fit for God to reign and find 2\u2014BL Sloane 3705, an 18th-century modernization rest in. These difficult concepts are carefully explored of Sloane 1). Excerpts from the longer version exist in by Pelphrey, who succinctly summarizes Julian\u2019s teach- Westminster Treasury 4 (W), written in the early 16th ing about divine love: \u201cThe reflection of divine love century; and in a 17th-century manuscript from Uphol- into humanity is . . . seen to take place in three ways: in land Northern Institute (formerly St. Joseph\u2019s College). the creation of humanity (our capacity for God); in the The Upholland manuscript was written by English Bene- maturing or \u2018increasing\u2019 of humanity (to which she also dictine nuns, living at Cambrai, after the Dissolution of refers as our \u2018remaking\u2019 in Christ); and in the perfecting the monasteries. The earliest printed edition (1670) is or fulfilling of human beings through the indwelling by Serenus Cressy, an English Benedictine, chaplain for Christ\u201d (1982: 90). the Paris house of the nuns. Julian presents this theology principally through the T.S. Eliot, in the Four Quartets, familiarized the liter- parable of the Lord and the Servant: \u201cThis story conveys ary world with Julian\u2019s key phrase, \u201cAll shall be well,\u201d Julian\u2019s insights about the first Adam, the cosmic Christ, and with some of her mystical symbolism. Thomas the Trinity, and the unity of all who are to be saved. The Merton cited her as \u201cone of the greatest English theolo- one great reality in the parable is the person of Christ, gians\u201d (1967). An observance at Norwich (1973) com- in whom are mysterious compenetrations of other reali- memorated the sixth centenary of her showings. Since ties\u2014the Adam of Genesis; the total Adam (all human- then Julian has become the focus of extensive study ity); Christ as the second Adam (and in one sense the first by literary scholars and theologians and has a growing Adam, since to his eternal image all things were made); following as a spiritual guide. Textual critics disagree on the choice of a preferred 386","and Christ, meaning all humanity to be saved. The basic JULIAN OF TOLEDO parable weaves into other metaphors: for example, the sinful Adam fell in misery to the earth, but likewise the Further Reading divine Adam falls on the earth\u2014into human nature in Mary\u2019s womb\u2014and makes the garden of the earth spring Primary Sources forth with food and drink for which the Father thirsts and longs, in his unending love for the treasure which was Colledge, Edmund, and James Walsh, eds. A Book of Showings hidden in the earth\u201d (Bradley, 1984: 209). The Trinity to the Anchoress Julian of Norwich. 2 vols. Toronto: Pontifi- is revealed in Christ. God is active as \u201cmaker, preserver, cal Institute, 1978 and lover,\u201d an insight Julian experienced when she saw creation in the likeness of a hazelnut. Since God is the Colledge, Edmund, and James Walsh, trans. Showings. NewYork: ground of the soul, the desire for God is natural, and Paulist Press, 1978 sin (all chat is not good) is unnatural. Prayer unites the soul to God, the foundation from which the prayer del Mastro, M.L., trans. Revelation of Divine Love in Sixteen arises. In the depths or core of the believer, the being Showings. Liguori, Mo.: Triumph Books, 1994 of God intersects with the being of the creature and is the root of a \u201cgodly will\u201d that always inclines toward Glasscoe, Marion, ed. A Revelation of Love. 2d ed. Exeter: Uni- the good. Nonetheless, humanity continues to sin, for versity of Exeter, 1986. evil was permitted to arise contrary to goodness, which will triumph in the end in the form of a good greater Secondary Sources than what would otherwise have been. How \u201call things shall be well,\u201d as Christ promised Julian, will remain New CBEL 1:522\u201324 hidden until a great deed is accomplished on the Last Manual 9:3082\u201384, 3438\u201344 Day (Long Text, ch. 32). Bradley, Ritamary. \u201cJulian of Norwich: Writer and Mystic.\u201d In Literary and linguistic critics contribute to the An Introduction to the Medieval Mystics of Europe, ed. Paul explication of this mystical core, Reynolds explores the E. Szarmach. Albany: SUNY Press, 1984, pp. 195\u2013216 key images of Christ as courteous and \u201chomely,\u201d in its Bradley, Ritamary. Julian\u2019s Way: A Practical Commentary on medieval sense. Courtesy signifies that Christ possesses Julian of Norwich. London: HarperCollins, 1992 without limit the largesse and fidelity attributed to the Glasscoe, Marion. \u201cVisions and Revisions: A Further Look at the medieval knight. Courtesy fuses with \u201chomeliness,\u201d Manuscripts of Julian of Norwich.\u201d SB 42 (1989): 103\u201320 the familiar manner used at home, among equals, and Lagorio, Valerie Marie, and Ritamary Bradley. \u201cJulian of Nor- implies nearness, so that \u201cwe are clothed and enclosed wich.\u201d In The 14th-Century English Mystics: A Comprehensive in the goodness of God\u201d (Long Text, ch. 6). In his Annotated Bibliography. NewYork: Garland, 1981, pp. 105\u201326 familiar aspect Christ is mother, an image rooted in Llewelyn, Robert, ed. Julian: Woman of Our Day. Mystic: scripture and in biblical exegesis but developed with Twenty-Third Publications, 1987 originality by Julian. As the archetypal mother Christ Molinari, Paolo. Julian of Norwich: The Teaching of a 14th Cen- bears his children not to pain and dying but to joy and tury English Mystic. London: Longmans, Green, 1958 endless living. His Passion is a birthing, which entailed Nuth, Joan. Wisdom\u2019s Daughter. New York: Crossroad, 1991 the sharpest throes that ever were, and was undertaken to Pelphrey, Brant. Love Was His Meaning: The Theology and Mysti- satisfy his love. The maternal image further signifies that cism of Julian of Norwich. Salzburg: Institut fur Anglistik und humanity dwells in Christ, as in a mother\u2019s womb, and Amerikanistik, 1982 is also fed, nurtured, chastised, and tenderly cared for, Reynolds, Anna Maria. \u201c\u2018Courtesy\u2019 and \u2018Homeliness\u2019 in the Rev- as a child. The sensual nature of humanity (that which elations of Julian of Norwich.\u201d 14th-Century English Mystics is born into time) is in the second person, Jesus Christ, Newsletter (Mystics Quarterly) 5\/2 (1979): 12\u201320 and is knit\u2014as in fabric making\u2014to its ground in God. von Nolcken, Christina. \u201cJulian of Norwich.\u201d In Middle English This motherhood metaphor has attracted the attention of Prose: A Critical Guide to Major Genres and Authors, ed. feminist criticism, adding to Julian\u2019s popularity today. A.S.G. Edwards. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, The overall lesson of the revelations is love in three 1984, pp. 97\u2013108. meanings: uncreated love, or God; created love\u2014the human soul in God; and a love that is bestowed as vir- Ritamary Bradley tue, enabling believers to love God, themselves, and all creation, especially their \u201ceven-Christians.\u201d JULIAN OF TOLEDO (b. ca. 640) See also Kempe, Margery Born around 640, Julian was of partly Jewish descent. Knowledge of his career comes primarily from the brief \u201cEulogy\u201d of him written by Bishop Felix of Toledo (693\u2013ca. 700). He was a pupil of Bishop Eugenius 11 (647\u2013657), and subsequently became a member of the clergy of the church in Toledo while following a rigorous ascetic regime. Following the death of Bishop Quiricus (667\u2013680) he was chosen by King Wamba to take over the see. The choice may have been influenced by Julian\u2019s eulogistic Historia Wambae, an account of the opening events of that king\u2019s reign. However, before the end of 680 Julian had been caught up in, or even had initi- ated, the chain of events leading to Wamba\u2019s enforced abdication and retirement to a monastery. With the new king, Ervig (680\u2013687), to whom he had previously dedicated a now lost work on divine judgment, Julian 387","JULIAN OF TOLEDO an education, and opportunities, in the capital. Adopting a new name in tribute to his uncle, Justinian learned seems to have cooperated closely. In 686 he dedicated Greek, took a liking to intellectual pursuits such as to the king his most significant surviving book, On the theology, and learned the workings of the military and Proof of the Sixth Age, a polemical reply to Jewish de- the court. In 518, by a quirk of fortune, Justin seized the nials of Christ\u2019s messiahship. This work redefined the throne, and Justinian quickly emerged as his right-hand chronological framework of human history within an man, becoming heir-designate in 525 and full successor apocalyptic context, and was to be highly influential in two years later. Spain and western Europe throughout the Middle Ages. He died in Gao. By that time, Justinian had met and married Theodo- ra, the remarkable woman who was to be his invaluable Other extant writings by Julian include the Anti- partner in rule. He had also identified administrators and keimenon and the Prognosticum futuri saeculi. In these, commanders on whom he could rely and had formulated as in lost collections referred to in the \u201cEulogy,\u201d Julian the main lines of his policies. During the first four years is revealed as an assiduous reader of the works of Au- of his reign, he was trapped in an unwanted war with gustine. Like Ildefonsus, Julian is credited by Felix with his powerful eastern neighbor, Persia; and just as he the composition of verse and also of a substantial body was winning peace and freedom there, the devastat- of liturgy. The latter cannot be disentangled from the ing Nika riots of January 532 nearly swept him off the vast corpus of Mozarafaic liturgical texts. throne. He recovered quickly, however, thanks partly to the advice of Theodora and to the soldiers of the young During his episcopate Julianus presided over four general Belisarius, and was then in a stronger position Councils of Toledo: the twelfth (680\u2013681), thirteenth that allowed him to initiate an array of projects. These (683), fourteenth (684), and fifteenth (688). The first included a codification of the Roman legal tradition as of these formalized the primacy of Toledo over all the Corpus juris civilis, schemes to end the religious and other churches of the Visigothic kingdom. Julian himself political dissent of the Monophysites and other hetero- contributed to this by his emphasis on the role of the dox movements, and a large-scale building program that anointing of the king in the \u201croyal city\u201d as a precondi- was to culminate in the triumphant cathedral of Hagia tion for a new ruler\u2019s legitimacy. Sophia in the capital. Further Reading Justinian\u2019s chief project, though, was his program of reconquest, aimed at recovering the western provinces Collins, R. \u201cJulian of Toledo and the Royal Succession in Late that had been detached by various Germanic tribes dur- Seventh-Century Spain.\u201d In Early Medieval King-ship. Eds. ing the previous century. He was inspired in this by his P. Sawyer and I. Wood. Leeds, 1977. 30\u201349. duty to rescue the orthodox provincials in those districts from their Arian Christian rulers, and he was also prod- Hillgarth, J. N. \u201cSt. Julian of Toledo in the Middle Ages.\u201d Journal ded by dispossessed landowners who sought the restitu- of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 21 (1958), 7\u201326. tion of their property; more broadly, he was motivated by his broad perception that the barbarian \u201csuccessor Murphy, F. X. \u201cJulian of Toledo and the Fall of the Visigothic states\u201d in the west were only a temporary aberration, Kingdom in Spain.\u201d Speculum 27 (1952), 1\u201321. and by a sense that he was responsible for restoring the Roman empire to its former scope, encompassing the Roger Collins entire Mediterranean. JUSTINIAN I Exploiting diplomatic opportunities, Justinian dis- (c. 482 or 483\u2013565, r. 527\u2013565) patched the brilliant Belisarius to North Africa, where the destruction of the Vandal kingdom was effected Justinian I (Flavius Sabbatius) was the sovereign of the with lightning speed (533\u2013534). Meanwhile, given the eastern Roman, or Byzantine, empire during an age deterioration of relations with the Ostrogoths in Italy of vast transition and was a figure of both glory and during the last years of their king, Theoderic, and the paradox. Born a peasant, he appreciated the awesome dynastic crisis attending the succession of Theodoric\u2019s Roman heritage as few others could appreciate it; but in daughter Amalasuntha, Justinian was next able to ad- seeking to be its steward and restorer, he also opened the dress the conquest of the Ostrogoth kingdom. While way to its transformation. His reign\u2014one of the longest another general was sent to seize the Ostrogoths\u2019 in the Byzantine empire\u2014saw achievements that were holdings in the Balkans, Belisarius landed in Sicily in substantial and enduring but brought ruin and disaster as the summer of 535, beginning the long episode of the their price. In his very quest to restore the territorial and Gothic wars in Italy. doctrinal unity of the Roman world, Justinian guaranteed its further fragmentation. Uneasy about Belisarius\u2019s popularity and military prowess, Justinian vacillated in his support for his Justinian was of Thracian-Illyrian stock and was born in a Latin-speaking district of the Macedonian Balkans. His uncle, Justin, having achieved success as a member of the new imperial guards in Constantinople, sent for the boy and several other nephews in order to give them 388","general and was then furious when Belisarius dared to JUSTINIAN I entertain an offer from the Goths to take the imperial title in the west. When the settlement of 540 with the for the governmental agency of the exarchate, through Goths broke down and a counter-offensive by Totila be- which the Byzantine empire was to rule its Italian gan undoing Belisarius\u2019s work, Justinian sent Belisarius holdings in the face of invasions by the Lombards. The back to Italy, though grudgingly and without adequate exarchs\u2019 capital, Ravenna, provided a model for imperial support or resources. Only when Belisarius asked to be style and imagery for centuries and had an important recalled and the outlook in Italy seemed hopeless did influence on Charlemagne. This model was conveyed Justinian commission Narses to organize a new army most notably through the wondrous mosaic decorations and complete the conquest of Italy. carried out under Justinian, which include the famous portraits of him and Theodora in San Vitale. As the spon- When Justinian\u2019s commitment to the reconquest was sor of the great Corpus juris civilis\u2014whose rediscovery most intense and the reconquest itself was in full tide in Italy in the eleventh century was influential in reviving and was proving more prolonged than he had intended, Roman law and legal studies in later medieval Italy and the rapacious Persian king reopened war with the empire the west in general\u2014Justinian himself became a symbol on a wide range of fronts. This drained the emperor\u2019s of the traditions of Roman sovereignty. Dante was to manpower and resources, which were further reduced celebrate Justinian as a paradigm of imperial majesty by a plague that ravaged the Mediterranean world in in Canto 6 of Paradiso. 542\u2013543. Justinian, increasingly pressed, was forced to impose oppressive taxes and to skimp on expenditures See also Theodora wherever he could. His economies and his withdrawals of troops particularly weakened the Balkan regions, Further Reading which were exposed to raids by various peoples, notably the Huns, who menaced Constantinople several times. Barker, John W. Justinian and the Later Roman Empire. Madison: This weakening allowed even more disastrous penetra- University of Wisconsin Press, 1966. (General account setting tions of the Balkans by Avars and Slavs in the decades the reign in the context of the fourth-seventh centuries.) following Justinian\u2019s death. Browning, Robert. Justinian and Theodora, rev. ed. London: Throughout his reign, Justinian strove to achieve Thames and Hudson, 1987. (Vivid and insightful.) religious unity in the face of intractable dissent and regional resistance. His continually shirting responses Bury, J. B. A History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death included persecution, conciliation, schemes for com- of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian I (a.d. 395\u2013565), promise, and the bullying of Pope Vigilius to win the Vol. 2. London: Macmillan, 1923. (Reprint, NewYork: Dover, accord of Rome. Justinian\u2019s increasing obsession with 1958. Fullest modern scholarly study in English.) religious coercion poisoned his last years, during which the ruinous effects of his overstrained finances darkened Downey, Glanville W. Constantinople in the Age of Justinian. his reputation and made his death in November 565 a Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1960. (Lively evoca- relief to his subjects. tion of the era.) Among Justinian\u2019s achievements, for good or ill, Holmes, W. G. The Age of Justinian and Theodora: A History of must be reckoned his lasting impact on Italy. Although the Sixth Century, 2 vols. London: G. Bell and Sons, 1905\u2013 his wars of reconquest left the peninsula devastated 1907. (2nd ed., 1912. Extended and detailed but somewhat and exhausted, he nevertheless set the pattern for its uninspired and dated.) restored government through his Pragmatic Sanction of 554; and the extraordinarily comprehensive powers that Procopius of Caesarea. History of the Wars, Secret History, and he granted to Belisarius and Narses laid the foundation Buildings. Loeb Classical Library Series, 7 vols. London and Cambridge, Mass.: Heinemann and Harvard University Press, 1914\u20131940. (With reprints. Full English translation of the complete works of the most important contemporaneous historian of Justinian.) Ure, Percy N. Justinian and His Age. Harmondsworth and Baltimore, Md.: Penguin, 1951. (Stimulating and perceptive study.) John W. Barker 389","","K KEMPE, MARGERY (ca. 1373\u2013after 1438) Kempe\u2019s travels took her to the Holy Land, Italy, Santiago de Compostela, and finally, near the end of her Controversial mystic and author of the first extant au- life, to Danzig, Prussia. The Book ends with her return tobiography in English. The Book of Margery Kempe to King\u2019s Lynn, where she still inspires both hostility is both a mystical treatise consisting of the author\u2019s and marvel as a woman in her sixties. visions and conversations with Christ and a narrative of her life, including her conversion, pilgrimages, and The Book of Margery Kempe departs from the medi- arguments with church authorities. Kempe, who was eval saint\u2019s life and mystical treatise. Unlike the saint\u2019s illiterate, dictated her autobiography to two different life, which is biographical, Kempe\u2019s book is autobio- scribes. The original manuscript has been lost, but a graphical. As author and narrator of her own life Kempe 15th-century copy was discovered in 1934. develops some hagiographic conventions, such as the themes of her suffering, patience, and charity, while Born in the East Anglian town of King\u2019s Lynn ca. ignoring others. Her book is also unusual as a mystical 1373, Margery was the daughter of John Brunham, treatise. Kempe\u2019s visions and revelations are grounded mayor of the town. At the age of twenty she married John in everyday, autobiographical details, including her Kempe. After the difficult birth of their first child Kempe struggles for acceptance, her fears for her own safety, suffered a breakdown. This experience, followed by and her travels. business failures in brewing and milling, led eventually to her mystical conversion. Her first ordeal as a mystic Kempe\u2019s work is divided into two sections, or books. was to convince her husband to be celibate, but only The first book ends with the death of her scribe. Kempe after twenty years of marriage and fourteen children did spent four years trying to convince the second scribe to he agree, on the condition that she pay off all his debts. recopy and finish her book. He hesitated because of her With the consent of her husband and the church Kempe notoriety and the illegibility of the first scribe\u2019s writing was finally free to pursue her vocation as a mystic. but finally agreed. The 15th-century manuscript that sur- vives may be a copy of the original dictated by Kempe The \u201cway to high perfection,\u201d however, was fraught to the second scribe. This copy belonged to Mount with difficulties. Kempe encountered hostility from Grace, a Carthusian monastery in Yorkshire, but was people who doubted her holiness and questioned her later lost. William Butler-Bowdon discovered it in 1934 orthodoxy. She traveled around England seeking support in his family library, and Hope Emily Allen identified and verification of her visions from many holy people, it as The Book of Margery Kempe. (It is now BL Add. including the anchoress Julian of Norwich. Neverthe- 61823.) Until 1934 only brief extracts of Kempe\u2019s book less, she continued to arouse suspicion and persecution had been known; these extracts, printed by Wynkyn de for her behavior, including her bold speech and her Worde (ca. 1501) and Henry Pepwell (1521), mislead- \u201cboisterous weeping.\u201d She was arrested as a Lollard, ingly omit Kempe\u2019s autobiographical passages, and one threatened with burning at the stake by her English incorrectly labels her a \u201cdevout anchoress.\u201d detractors, and deserted by her fellow pilgrims on her travels abroad. Kempe\u2019s weeping in particular inspired As a mystical treatise Kempe\u2019s Book is often com- her contemporaries to revile her and modern readers to pared with the work of her contemporary Julian of label her \u201chysterical.\u201d Norwich. Kempe\u2019s mysticism, like Julian\u2019s, belongs 391","KEMPE, MARGERY Further Reading to the tradition called affective piety, characterized by Primary Sources personal devotion to Christ\u2019s humanity, particularly in the Nativity and Passion. The emotions, or affections, Butler-Bowdon, William, ed. and trans. The Book of Margery play a crucial role in this devotion. By identifying with Kempe, New York: Devin-Adair, 1944. the suffering humanity of Christ the mystic is trans- ported through her emotions to spiritual love. Meech, Sanford Brown, and Hope Emily Allen, eds. The Book of Margery Kempe. EETS o.s. 212. London: Oxford University Kempe\u2019s life and mysticism, however, differ con- Press, 1940. siderably from Julian\u2019s. Her boisterous weeping, her insistent identification with Christ, her self-preoccupa- Windeatt, B.A., trans. The Book of Margery Kempe. New York: tion, and her refusal to live the more orthodox life of a Penguin, 1985. nun or recluse distinguish her from Julian of Norwich. Critics in her own time as well as today fault her for the Secondary Sources excessive emotionalism and literalness of her visions. Yet Kempe\u2019s mysticism was not unique. She found mod- New CBEL 1:524. els for it in the lives and mystical works of other female Manual 9:3084\u201386, 3444\u201345. mystics, such as Marie d\u2019Oignies, Birgitta (Bridget) of Atkinson, Clarissa W. Mystic and Pilgrim: The Book and the Sweden, and Elizabeth of Hungary, and in the writings of the English mystic Richard Rolle. World of Margery Kempe. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983. The core of the controversy about Margery Kempe Beckwith, Sarah. \u201cA Very Material Mysticism: The Medieval is her version of imitating Christ. Although the practice Mysticism of Margery Kempe.\u201d In Medieval Literature: of imitating Christ\u2019s suffering was common in medieval Criticism, Ideology & History, ed. David Aers. New York: spirituality, Kempe is preoccupied with this suffering. St. Martin, 1986, pp. 34\u201357. Her meditations on the Passion elicit this suffering and Fries, Maureen. \u201cMargery Kempe.\u201d In An Introduction to the her roaring draws attention to it, disrupting sermons Medieval Mystics of Europe, ed. Paul E. Szarmach. Albany: and disturbing the people around her. In addition SUNY Press, 1984, pp. 217\u201335. Kempe\u2019s use of erotic language to describe mystical Goodman, Anthony E. \u201cThe Piety of John Brunham\u2019s Daughter, union\u2014words like ravishment, dalliance, and even of Lynn.\u201d In Medieval Women, ed. Derek Baker. Oxford: homeliness\u2014is boldly literal. She translates the mystical Blackwell, 1978, pp. 347\u201358. concept of marriage to Christ into an alarmingly worldly Hirsh, John C. \u201cMargery Kempe.\u201d In Middle English Prose: one, as Christ instructs Kempe to take him to bed with A Critical Guide to Major Authors and Genres, ed. A.S.G. her as her husband (ch. 36). Although Rolle before her Edwards. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1984, had used sensual imagery to describe mystical union, pp. 109\u201319. Kempe\u2019s usage startles with its emphasis on the literal Lochrie, Karma. Margery Kempe and Translations of the Flesh. rather than the figurative or symbolic. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991. McEntire, Sandra J., ed. Margery Kempe: A Book of Essays. New Kempe\u2019s book poses problems for literary analysis as York: Garland, 1992. well. Her narrative is not strictly chronological, and with its digressions and repetitions it seems unconstructed. Karma Lochrie How much Kempe\u2019s scribes contributed to the shape of the narrative is a further problem facing literary analysis. KOERBECKE, JOHANN (ca. 1420\u20131491) Finally Kempe s illiteracy makes the question of influ- ence an interesting one. She exhibits some knowledge A contemporary of Stefan Lochner and Konrad Witz, of both Latin and vernacular religious texts in spite of this painter contributed to the transition from the inter- her inability to read or write. national Gothic style to a more realistic one, inspired by Netherlandish art. Koerbecke was probably born Like her book Margery Kempe is an interesting circa 1420 in Coesfeld (Northrhine Westphalia). He is and problematic subject. As a woman charting her first recorded in M\u00fcnster in 1443, when he purchased own \u201cway to high perfection\u201d she challenged the re- a house. He led an important workshop there until his ligious, social, and gender expectations of her time. death on June 13, 1491. Her book offers valuable insight into the struggles of an extraordinary medieval woman who refused Koerbecke\u2019s sole documented work is the Marienfeld to conform to those expectations in her pursuit of a Altarpiece, for which he received payment in 1456. \u201csingular grace.\u201d Installed on the high altar of the Marienfeld monas- tery church in 1457, it originally consisted of a carved See also Julian of Norwich; Rolle, Richard, shrine and painted wings with scenes from the life of of Hampole the Virgin and the Passion. In the seventeenth century, the wings were sawn into sixteen panels, now located in several collections (Avignon, Mus\u00e9e Calvet; Berlin, Gem\u00e4ldegalerie; Chicago, Art Institute; Cracow, Na- tional Museum; Madrid, Thyssen Collection; Moscow, Pushkin Museum; M\u00fcnster, Westf\u00e4lisches Landes- museum; Nuremberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum; 392","Washington, National Gallery). They reveal knowledge KONRAD VON W\u00dcRZBURG of works by important painters of the preceding genera- tion in Westphalia and Cologne. Koerbecke\u2019s Crucifix- provide us with an extraordinary amount of information ion is inspired by Conrad von Soest\u2019s paintings of that about his life and patronage. Born in W\u00fcrzburg, Konrad subject, his Presentation is an interpretation of Stephan began as a wandering poet, spent time in Strasbourg and Lochner\u2019s 1447 version (Darmstadt, Hessisches Lan- eventually settled in Basle. Konrad wrote two lays. Got desmuseum), and his Resurrection is based on Master gewaltec waz du schickest (Powerful God, what you Francke\u2019s 1424 Englandfahrer Altarpiece (Hamburg, send) is a religious lay in praise of the Virgin and the Kunsthalle). Koerbecke\u2019s volumetric figures and de- Trinity. V\u00eanus diu feine diust entsl\u00e2fen (Elegant Venus tailed, naturalistic treatment of interiors and landscapes has fallen asleep) is a secular lay treating courtly love. derive from Netherlandish art. Unfortunately, the melodies to both of these have been lost. Konrad\u2019s shorter love lyric consists primarily of Other attributed works are the wings of the Langen- nine summer songs and eleven winter songs character- horst Altarpiece with eight scenes from the Passion ized by floral metaphors and the j\u00e2rlanc introduction (M\u00fcnster, Westf\u00e4lisches Landesmuseum), ca. 1445, (nos. 5, 6, 10, 13, 17, 21, 23, 27). Konrad also produced and three panels from an altarpiece with scenes from three dawn songs (nos. 14, 15, 30), as well as exempla the life of Saint John the Baptist: the baptism of Christ (nos. 18, 24, 25), maxims, and religious poetry. In and Christ with Saint John (M\u00fcnster, Westf\u00e4lisches Konrad\u2019s short lyric, one finds all the qualities of literary Landesmuseum), and the beheading of the Baptist (The mannerism. For example, in song 26, every single word Hague, Meermanno-Westreenianum Museum), ca. is part of a rhyming pair: Gar bar l\u00eet w\u00eet walt, kalt sn\u00ea 1470. A wing with Saints John the Baptist and George, w\u00ea tuot: gluot s\u00ee b\u00ee mir. The excessive, albeit impres- and a fragment with Saint Christopher, survive from the sive rhyme schemes, especially in songs 26, 27, 28 and Freckenhorst Altarpiece of ca. 1470\u20131480 (Munster, 30, ultimately obscure the meaning and emotion of the Westfalisches Landesmuseum). poetry and Konrad\u2019s use of traditional imagery often undermines the originality of his stylistic innovations. See also Francke, Master; Lochner, Stefan Konrad\u2019s allegory, Die Klage der Kunst (Art\u2019s Com- plaint), appeals for patronage and support of \u201ctrue art\u201d Further Reading (rehte kunst). His hymn in praise of the Virgin Mary, Die goldene Schmiede (The Golden Smith), draws on and Kirchhoff, Karl-Heinz. \u201cMaler und Malerfamilien in M\u00fcnster.\u201d synthesizes an extraordinary range of medieval images Westfalen 4 (1977): 98\u2013110. and symbols. This work may have been commissioned by the Strasbourg Bishop Konrad von Lichtenberg. Luckhardt, Jochen. Der Hochaltar der Zisterzienserklosterkirche Other religious-oriented works include Konrad\u2019s verse Marienfeld. M\u00fcnster: Westf\u00e4lisches Landesmuseum f\u00fcr Kunst legends. Silvester (1260) was commissioned by Liutold und Kulturgeschichte, 1987. von Roeteln, the legend of Alexius (1265), by Johannes von Bermeswil and Heinrich Iselin, and Konrad com- Pieper, Paul, Die deutschen, niederl\u00e4ndischen und italienischen posed the story of Pantaleon (1258) for Johannes von Ar- Tafelbilder bis um 1530. Bestandskataloge des Westf\u00e4lischen guel. The patronage of Konrad\u2019s earliest narrative work, Landesmuseum f\u00fcr Kunst und Kulturgeschichte. M\u00fcnster: Das Turnier von Nantes (The Tournament of Nantes, Aschendorff, 1986, pp. 140\u2013200. 1257\u20131258) is unknown, but critics suspect that it was written for someone affiliated with the Lower Rhine Sommer, Johannes. Johann Koerbecke: Der Meister des Marien- region. The tournament takes place at the Arthurian felder Altars von 1457. Dissertation, Universtit\u00e4t Bonn, 1937. capital of Nantes and pits the German princes under the M\u00fcnster: Westf\u00e4lische Vereinsdruckerei, 1937. leadership of Richard of England against the French princes, under the leadership of the king of France. This Susanne Reece poem was probably intended to win the support of the lower German princes for the recently crowned king of KONRAD VON W\u00dcRZBURG the Romans, Richard, earl of Cornwall (May 17, 1257). (ca. 1230\u20131287) Konrad\u2019s fragment, Schwannritter (Swan Knight), also seems to have been written during this period. The tale Included among the \u201ctwelve old masters\u201d revered by is related to the French Chevalier au Cygne (1200) and Meistersingers, Konrad produced one of the largest the Lohengrin story found at the end of Wolfram von and most varied oeuvres in all of Middle High German Eschenbach\u2019s Parzival (1210). Undoubtedly, Konrad\u2019s literature. Initially neglected by modern scholars as M\u00e4ren (lyric novellas) are the most impressive and well- an epigone and mannerist, critics are now examining known works in his oeuvre. Das Herzemaere relates the Konrad\u2019s work in its own context. Konrad embodies a popular tale of the jealous lord who feeds his wife the turn in German literature, he was neither noble (Song 32, line 189: waere ich edel, if I were noble) nor a part of the court. Konrad plied his trade in the cities and wrote for the wealthy bourgeoisie and the urban nobility. Archives, official documents, and Konrad\u2019s works themselves 393","KONRAD VON W\u00dcRZBURG Konrad\u2019s last and greatest endeavor, Trojanerkrieg (The Trojan War, 1281) surpasses, with its 40,424 vers- heart of her beloved knight. Konrad\u2019s introduction to this es, Herbert von Fritzlar\u2019s Middle High German rendition story recalls the work of Gottfried von Stra\u00dfburg. This of the fall of Troy, Liet von Troye (1190\u20131217) in both reference serves to underscore Gottfried\u2019s conspicuous length and quality. Beno\u00eet de Sainte-Maure\u2019s Estoire de influence on Konrad\u2019s style. In Der Welt Lohn (Worldly Troie is the main source for both German works. Kon- Reward), Konrad describes Wirnt von Grafenberg\u2019s (the rad\u2019s narrative includes the birth of Paris and Achilles, poet of the courtly verse novel Wigalois) encounter with relates the tale of Jason and Medea, the kidnapping of Frau Welt (Lady World). Although no certain source has Helen and the preparation for war. Konrad\u2019s tale breaks been identified for this tale, it belongs to the contemptus off in the middle of the siege of Troy. The poem, con- mundi (contempt of the world) tradition. After gazing cluded by a lesser, anonymous poet, was well received. upon the infested backside of Frau Welt, Wirnt rejects The exact nature of the relationship of Konrad\u2019s Tro- the world, takes up the cross, and achieves martyrdom janerkrieg to the G\u00f6ttweiger Trojanerkrieg (1270\u20131300) in the Holy Land. The dark comedy Heinrich von has not yet been determined. However, at the very least, Kempten (also called Otte mit dem Bart, Otto with the Konrad\u2019s Schwannritter seems to have influenced the Beard, 1261), illustrates the benefits of loyalty. Com- anonymous poet of G\u00f6tttweiger Trojanerkrieg, errone- posed for the dean of Strasbourg Cathedral, Berthold ously attributed to Wolfram von Eschenbach. Konrad von Tiersberg, the story plays on the traditions of the died in Basle either on August 31 or between October ill-tempered Emperor Otte (probably Emperor Otto II), 8\u201322, 1287. He and his wife, Bertcha, had two daughters Critics dispute the authorship of other Maren attributed Gerina and Agnese. He was buried in Basle. Konrad to Konrad (Die halbe Birne, Half of the Pear, Der Mvnch von W\u00fcrzburg was highly esteemed by contemporaries ah Liebesbote, The Monk as Go-between, etc.). and successors. He is depicted dictating his work in the Codex Manesse. Hugo von Timberg praises Konrad in Konrad composed three romances. Engelhard, set in Der Renner (II. 1202\u20131220), and Frauenlob (Heinrich the time of Charlemagne, tells a tale of fidelity (triuwe) von Mei\u00dfen) mourns him with the lament that art itself in friendship. Engelhard and Dietrich resemble one had died with the passing of Konrad: ach kunst ist t\u00f4t! another almost exactly and develop a close friendship (313, 15\u201321). at court in Denmark. Dietrich leaves the court to as- sume his position as the duke of Brabant but returns to See also Frauenlob; Gottfried von Stra\u00dfburg; Denmark to help Engelhard win the hand of Engeltrud, Hartmann von Aue the daughter of the king of Denmark. Later, Dietrich is stricken with leprosy. Reminiscent of Hartmann von Further Reading Aue\u2019s tale, Der Arme Heinrich, the poem culminates after Dietrich reveals that the blood of Engelhard\u2019s Brandt, R\u00fcdiger. Konrad von W\u00fcrzburg. Darmstadt: Wissen- children is the only remedy for his illness. In Partono- schaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1989. pier und Meliur (1277), Konrad draws on the extremely popular French romance Partonopeus de Blois (1200). Kokott, Hartmut. Konrad von W\u00fcrzburg: Ein Autor zwischen While out hunting, Partonopier chances on a boat that Auftrag und Autonomie. Stuttgart: Hirzel, 1989. takes him to the invisible island castle of the heiress of the Byzantine imperial throne, an enchantress named Konrad von W\u00fcrzburg. Der Trojanische Krieg, ed. Adelbert von Meliur. At the castle, invisible hands tend to the youth. Keller. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1965. Partonopier lies with the invisible Meliur each night. Meliur plans to marry him when he comes of age under \u2014\u2014. Die goldene Schmiede, ed. Edward Schr\u00f6der. G\u00f6ttingen: the condition that he does not look upon her before the Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1969. appointed time. After a year has passed, Partonopier, plagued by doubts, chances to look upon Meliur and \u2014\u2014. Die Legenden: Silvester, Alexius, Pantaleon, ed. Paul Ge- she rejects him. A year later, the pair is reconciled. reke. Halle: Niemeyer, 1925\u20131927. Partonopier wins Meliur\u2019s hand through knightly prow- ess and becomes the Byzantine emperor. The romance \u2014\u2014. Engelhard, ed. Paul Gereke. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, comprises a mix of several different traditions, includ- 1982. ing: fairy tales, antique epics, mat\u00e8rie de Bretange (tales of Bretange), and the chansons de geste (songs \u2014\u2014. Kleinere Dichtungen, ed. Edward Schr\u00f6der. 3 vols. Berlin: of heroic deeds). Similar motifs appear in Die K\u00f6nigen Weidmann, 1959\u20131963 [Der Welt Lohn, Das Herzmaere, von Brennenden See (The Queen of the Burning Lake, Heinrich von Kempten, Der Schwanritter. Das Turnier von 1220\u20131240), Egenolf von Staufenberg\u2019s courtly tale, Nantes, Die Klage der Kunst, songs]. Ritter Peter (1310), and in Th\u00fcring von Ringoltingen\u2019s verse tale Melusine (1456). \u2014\u2014. Partonopier und Meliur, eds. Karl Bartsch and Franz Pfeiffer. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1871; rpt. 1970. \u2014\u2014. Trojanerkrieg: Staatsbibliothek Preussischer Kulturbe- sitz, Ms. germ. fol. 1. Munich: Lengenfelder, 1989 [color microfiche]. Musica practica. Minnes\u00e4nger und Meistersinger Lieder um Konrad von W\u00fcrzburg. Freiburg: Christophorus, 1988 [audio recording]. Stephen M. Carey 394","KORM\u00c1KR QGMUMDARSON KORM\u00c1KR QGMUMDARSON (ca. 930\u2013970) strophe in Heimskringla. An original artistic device of the poet is his way of replacing the dr\u00e1pa\u2019s refrain (stef) Korm\u00e1kr Qgmumdarson was an Icelandic poet, the by varying mythological allusions that do not seem to chief character of Korm\u00e1ks saga. The name (Irish Cor- have any connection with the content of the rest of the mac) suggests Celtic family connections. According to poem. In Snorri\u2019s H\u00e1ttatal, this variety of dr\u00f3ttkv\u00e6tt is Haukr Vald\u00edsarson\u2019s \u00cdslendingadr\u00e1pa, Korm\u00e1kr was of called hj\u00e1st\u00e6lt. high birth (kynst\u00f3rr). The saga belongs to the category of sk\u00e1ldas\u00f6gur, and is particularly remarkable for the A much-discussed theory would have us believe that large number of verses (lausav\u00edsur) it contains scattered Korm\u00e1ks saga is an entirely literary product, with prose throughout. Sixty-four of the eighty-five verses are and poetry as equally authentic literary components. The spoken by the hero. Of the remaining ones, fifteen are author, it is suggested, was a 13th-century writer who attributed to his chief rival, Bersi. A few verses are faked, had been influenced by continental European troubadour corrupt, or of doubtful origin (in particular 6, 24, 61, 73, poetry and the medieval love poetry of which Tristan and 79). The prose story of the saga, the biography of is the hero (Bjarni Einarsson 1976). This theory has the poet, is unusually short and constitutes little more been contested on both linguistic and literary-histori- than a connecting framework around the many verses. cal grounds (Einar \u00d3l. Sveinsson 1966\u201369, Andersson There are linguistic indications that it was composed 1969, Hallberg 1975). at the beginning of the 13th century, the earliest period of saga writing. Further Reading Its all-dominating theme is the hero\u2019s unhappy love Editions story, a love that is never consummated. Right from the start, it contains bizarre elements. A glimpse of a Einar \u00d3l. Sveinsson, ed. Vatnsdcela saga. \u00cdslenzk fornrit, 8. young girl\u2019s beautiful ankles is enough to make the poet Reykjavik: Hi\u00f0 \u00edslenzka fornritaf\u00e9lag, 1939. fall in love and causes a flow of poetic inspiration. He realizes that love for the young Steinger\u00f0r is to be his Literature fate for the rest of his life. But although his feelings are reciprocated, and, after incidents in which blood is shed, Wood, Cecil. \u201cKormak\u2019s Stanzas Called the Sigur\u00f0ardr\u00e1pa.\u201d her father\u2019s resistance is overcome, the planned marriage Neophilologus 43 (1959), 305\u201319. falls through. Paradoxically enough, the direct cause of the failure is Korm\u00e1kr himself: when the time comes, he Hallberg, Peter. The Icelandic Saga. Trans. Paul Schach. Lincoln: does not turn up at the wedding that has already been University of Nebraska Press,\u2019 1962. prepared. According to the saga, the real reason is the harmful spell put upon him by a woman whose sons the Einar \u00d3l. Sveinsson. \u201cKorm\u00e1kr the Poet and His Verses.\u201d Saga- poet had killed. Against her will, Steinger\u00f0r is married to Book of the Viking Society 17 (1966\u201369), 18\u201360. the scarred warrior Bersi. With the arrogance that always characterizes him, Korm\u00e1kr insists on his first right to Andersson, Theodore M. \u201cSkalds and Troubadours.\u201d Mediaeval the girl and challenges Bersi to single combat, but after Scandinavia 2 (1969), 7\u201341. a slight wound has to admit defeat. Scornful verses, challenges, and single combats follow. Steinger\u00f0r leaves Frank, Roberta. \u201cOnomastic Play in Korm\u00e1kr\u2019s Verse: The Name Bersi and later marries again, this time a peaceful man Steinger\u00f0r.\u201d Mediaeval Scandinavia 3 (1970), 7\u201334. whom Korm\u00e1kr deeply despises and mocks. Bjarni Einarsson. \u201cThe Lovesick Skald: A Reply to Theodore Off on his Viking journeys, the poet dreams of his be- M. Andersson (Mediaeval Scandinavia 1969).\u201d Mediaeval loved and sings the praises of her beauty. What seems to Scandinavia 4 (1971) 21\u201341. be a promising meeting between the two occurs when Ko- rm\u00e1kr visits his country, but a night spent with Steinger\u00f0r Hallberg, Peter. Old Icelandic Poetry: Eddie Lay and Skaldic ends in a frustrating anticlimax: the physical role of a Verse. Trans. Paul Schach and Sonja Lindgrenson. Lincoln: lover seems to have been something denied to Korm\u00e1kr. University of Nebraska Press, 1975. One thing is certain: no Icelandic skald can compete Turville-Petre, E. O. G. Scaldic Poetry. Oxford: Clarendon, with Korm\u00e1kr as the master of love poetry, which is 1976. not, however, his only genre. Sk\u00e1ldatal informs us that Korm\u00e1kr had sung the praises of both Earl Sigur\u00f0r in Bjarni Einarsson. To skjaldesagaer. En analyse af Korm\u00e1ks saga Hla\u00f0ir and Haraldr gr\u00e1feldr (\u201cgrey-cloak\u201d) Eir\u00edksson. og Hallfre\u00f0ar saga. Bergen, Oslo, and Troms\u00f8: Universitets- Only a part of the former\u2019s poem has survived; there forlaget, 1976. are seven half-strophes from Sigur\u00f0ardr\u00e1pa, cited in Sk\u00e1ldskaparm\u00e1l in Snorri\u2019s Edda, and one complete See, Klaus von. \u201cSkaldenstrophe und Sagaprosa. Ein Beitrag zum Problem der m\u00fcndlichen \u00dcberlieferung in der altnordischen Literatur.\u201d Mediaeval Scandinavia 10 (1977), 58\u201382. Frank, Roberta. Old Norse Court Poetry: The Dr\u00f3ttkv\u00e6tt Stanza. Islandica, 42. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1978. See, Klaus von. \u201cM\u00fcndliche Prosa und Skaldendichtung. Mit einem Exkurs \u00fcber Skaldensagas und Trobadorbiographien.\u201d Mediaeval Scandinavia 11 (1978\u201379), 82\u201391. Schottmann, Hans. \u201cDer Bau der Korm\u00e1ks saga.\u201d Skandinavistik 12 (1982) 22\u201336. Lie, Hallvard. Om sagakunst og skaldskap. Utvalgte avhan- dlinger. \u00d8vre Ervik: Alvheim & Eide, 1982. Clover, Carol J., and John lindow, eds. Old Norse\u2013Icelandic Lit- erature: A Critical Guide. Islandica, 45. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1985. Folke Str\u00f6m 395","K\u00dcRENBERC, DER VON geliep wellen gerne s\u00een (God bring those together who wish to be lovers!). The poem might be the literal story K\u00dcRENBERC, DER VON (fl. late 12th c.) of the loss of a falcon or the falcon might be a symbol for a messenger of love, or for the yearning of lovers, Der von K\u00fcrenberc is the earliest named German lyric or for an unfaithful lover. If the woman is speaking, the poet. His poems are preserved only in the famous Hei- poem may be identified as Frauenstrophen, if a man, delberg University library Minnesang manuscript \u201cC,\u201d as a Botenlied. If it is first the man and then the lady, where he is grouped among the barons. He is possibly a it is a Wechsel. member of the K\u00fcrenberg family who had a castle near Linz, Austria, during the mid-twelfth century. He is part Der von K\u00fcrenberc introduces several elements that of what is known as the Danube or indigenous school, appear in later minnesang: the message and messenger showing very little French influence. taken from medieval Latin epistle form; the need for secrecy and fear of spies, merk\u00e6re (slanderers) and Fifteen stanzas have been preserved. The basic metri- l\u00fcgen\u00e6re (liars); the submissive role of the man. cal unit is the four-beat half-line; the long lines formed of two such halves are combined in rhyming couplets. Further Reading There are two stanza patterns: the predominant one of four long lines, which is the basis of the so-called Agler-Beck, Gayle. Der von K\u00fcrenberg: Edition, Notes, and Nibelung stanza, or Nibelungenstrophe, and that where Commentary. German Language and Literature Monographs a rhymeless line is inserted as the odd fifth half-line. 4. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1978. Several are so-called \u201cWomen\u2019s stanzas,\u201d or Frauenstro- phen, written from the woman\u2019s point of view. In one Heffner, R.-M.S, and Kathe Peterson. A Word-Index to Des poem, a lady stands at night on battlements, listening to Minnesangs Fr\u00fchling. Madison: University of Wisconsin a knight singing from among the crowd, in k\u00fcrenberges Press, 1942. w\u00eese (Minnesangs Fr\u00fchling [MF], no. 8,1). In another poem, the lady is compared with a falcon: women and Koschorreck, Walter, and Wilfried Werner, eds. Codex Manesse. falcons are easily tamed, if one entices them rightly, Die Gro\u00dfe Heidelberger Liederhandschrift. Faksimile-Aus- they will seek the man (MF 10, 17). gage des Cod. Pal. Germ. 848 der Universitdts-Bibliothek Heidelberg. Kassel: Ganymed, 1981 [facsimile]. K\u00fcrenberc makes dramatic and effective use of the Wechsel, or lyrical dialogue, alternating speeches of Moser, Hugo, and Helmut Tervooren. Des Minnesangs Fr\u00fchling identical length. Frequently the speeches do not make unter Benutzung der Ausgdben von Karl Lachmann und contact; the man and woman talk past each other. In Moriz Haupt, Friedrich Vogt und Carl von Kraus. Stuttgart: a Wechsel, he parodies the figure of the lover who so Hirzel, 1982. idealizes the lady that he stands beside her bed and does not dare wake her up, much less think of enjoying her Rakel, Hans-Herbert S. Der deutsche Minnesang. Eine Einfr\u00fch- favors (MF8, 9\u201315). He has a dramatic sense of situa- rung mit Texten und Materialien. Munich: Beck, 1986. tions; his lyrics often tell little stories. His best known song has the falcon as its subject, Ich z\u00f4ch mir einen Sayce, Olive. Poets of the Minnesang. Introduction, Notes and valken, for which many widely differing interpretations Glossary. Oxford: University Press, 1967. have been proposed (MF 8, 33). A person rears a falcon for more than a year, trains and adorns it with gold wire Schweikle, G\u00fcnther. Die mittelhochdeutsche Minnelyrik, vol. 1. and silken jesses. The falcon flies away \u201cinto other Die fr\u00fche Minnelyrik. Texte und \u00dcbertragungen, Einf\u00fchrung lands.\u201d Later, the person sees the falcon, still with the und Kommentar. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesell- gold and the silk, and says: Got sende si zesamene, die schaft, 1977. \u2014\u2014. Minnesang. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1989. Tervooren, Helmut. Bibliographie zum Minnesang und zuden Dichtern aus \u201cDes Minnesangs Fr\u00fchling.\u201d Berlin: Schmidt, 1969, pp. 55\u201358. Wapnewski, Peter. \u201cDes K\u00fcrenberger\u2019s Falkenlied.\u201d Euphorion 53 (1959): 1\u201319. Stephanie Cain Van D\u2019Elden 396","L LA VIGNE, ANDR\u00c9 DE soldiers and the antics of drunken messengers. All these strands are woven together in a seamless dramatic action (ca. 1457\u2013ca. 1515) in which the playwright deftly alternates affective and comic scenes for maximum effect. Late-medieval poet and playwright. Born between 1457 and 1470 in the port city of La Rochelle, La Vigne was Toward the end of the century, La Vigne collected a in the service of Marie d\u2019Orl\u00e9ans from ca. 1488 until number of his early works in the Vergier d\u2019honneur. In her death in 1493, when he became secretary to the 1504, he brought suit against Michel Le Noir, a Parisian duke of Savoy. In 1494, in an effort to attract a more printer, to stop an unauthorized edition of this work; powerful protector, he presented a work to King Charles the Parlement de Paris issued the injunction. Before VIII, the Ressource de la Crestient\u00e9. This poem is a the death of Charles VIII in 1498, La Vigne had been dream allegory in which the king, in the personage of appointed secretary to the queen, Anne of Brittany. He Magest\u00e9 Royalle, is shown as the protector of Dame remained in this capacity until her death in 1514. His Crestient\u00e9, who is in peril. Impressed with La Vigne\u2019s later works included epitaphs for his patrons and other talents, Charles appointed him historiographer of his panegyric poems. He wrote two other plays, the Sotise military expedition into Italy to conquer the kingdom \u00e0 huit personnages, attacking the abuses of his day, and of Naples (1494\u201395). The resulting chronicle, the Voy- the Moralit\u00e9 du nouveau monde against the abolition of age de Naples, is an eyewitness record of the events of the Pragmatic Sanction, as well as political poems. In the Italian campaign. Like the Ressource, it is written the Louenge des roys de France, for example, he sup- in alternating verse and prose. ported Louis XII in his quarrel with the pope. Francis I in the year of his accession (1515) named La Vigne In May 1496, La Vigne was invited to the town of his historiographer and charged him with writing the Seurre in Burgundy, where he was commissioned to history of his reign. Since only a few pages of the write a play on the life of St. Martin, patron of the town. chronicle were completed, La Vigne is thought to have Within five weeks, he had completed not only the Mys- died shortly after. t\u00e8re de saint Martin, comprising more than 10,000 lines of verse, but also a comic morality play, the Aveugle Further Reading et le boiteux, and a farce, the Meunier de qui le diable emporte l\u2019\u00e2me en enfer. The mystery play was writ- La Vigne, Andr\u00e9 de. Le myst\u00e8re de saint Martin, 1496, ed. Andr\u00e9 ten to edify the people with scenes from the holy and Duplat. Geneva: Droz, 1979. devout life of their patron saint. To this end, there are sermons, miracles, and conversions, as well as scenes \u2014\u2014. Le voyage de Naples, ed. Anna Slerca. Milan: Pubblicazioni set in Heaven and Hell. The play is also a rich tapestry della Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 1981. of daily life, showing people of all sorts and condi- tions engaged in their daily tasks. La Vigne portrays Brown, Cynthia Jane. The Shaping of History and Poetry in Late this milieu from a variety of stylistic perspectives. He Medieval France: Propaganda and Artistic Expression in sympathetically treats family difficulties and explores the Works of the Rh\u00e9toriqueurs. Birmingham: Summa, the psychology of suffering; he satirizes the abuses of 1985. the powerful, the faults of the clergy, and the venality of the merchant class; he depicts the bombast of braggart Duplat, Andr\u00e9. \u201cLa Moralit\u00e9 de l\u2019aveugle et du boiteux d\u2019Andrieu de la Vigne: \u00e9tude litt\u00e9raire et \u00e9dition.\u201d Travaux de linguistique et de litt\u00e9rature 21 (1983): 41\u201379. Andr\u00e9 Duplat 397","LANDINI, FRANCESCO music is readily apparent. A special musical cadence\u2014 which musicologists call the Landini cadence\u2014appears LANDINI, FRANCESCO frequently in his music; it is recognizable at the end of (c. 1325\u20132 September 1397) phrases as a leaping upward by an interval of a third. Landini\u2019s music points toward the polyphonic imitation Francesco Landini was a composer, organist, singer, in fifteenth-century early Renaissance music. instrument maker, and poet of the second generation of the Italian Trecento. He may have been born in Fiesole Further Reading or Florence and was the son of the painter Jacopo Del Casentino (d. 1349), a cofounder of the Florentine guild Editions of painters. Landini lost his sight after having smallpox as a child; as a result, he turned to music with a passion. The Works of Francesco Landini, ed. Leonard Ellinwood. Cam- He mastered several instruments, including the organ; bridge, Mass.: Medieval Academy of America, 1939. (2nd ed., worked as an organ builder, organ tuner, and instrument 1945; reprint, New York: Kraus Reprint, 1970.) maker; and played, sang, and wrote poetry. As a scholar, he is recorded as following the teachings of William of The Works of Francesco Landini, ed. Leo Schrade. Polyphonic Ockham, and he was knowledgeable in many areas of Music of the Fourteenth Century, 4. Monaco: \u00c9ditions de astrology, philosophy, and ethics. Landini was very ac- l\u2019Oiseau-Lyre, 1958. tive in religious and political events. His musical works indicate that he spent some time in northern Italy before Studies 1370, probably in Venice. He was organist at the mon- astery of Santa Trinita in 1361; and from 1365 until his Ellinwood, Leonard. \u201cFrancesco Landini and His Music.\u201d Musi- death he was capellanus at the church of San Lorenzo. cal Quarterly, 22, 1936, pp. 190ff. Fischer, Kurt von. \u201cOn the His acquaintances included the Florentine chancellor of Technique, Origin, and Evolution of Italian Trecento Music.\u201d state and humanist Coluccio Salutati and the composer Musical Quarterly, 47, 1963, pp. 41ff. Andreas de Florentia. In 1379 and 1387, Landini was involved in building organs at the church of Santa An- \u201cLandini, Francesco.\u201d In New Grove Dictionary of Music and nunziata and at the cathedral of Florence. Giovanni da Musicians, Vol. 10, pp. 428\u2013434. Prato, in Il paradiso degli Alberti (1389), a narrative poetic account of Florence, portrays Landini as an active Bradford Lee Eden musician and humanist, taking part in extensive philo- sophical and political conversations as well as singing LANFRANC OF BEC and playing the organ. Landini died in Florence, in the (ca. 1010\u20131089) church of San Lorenzo; his tombstone was discovered in Prato in the nineteenth century. A picture of Landini can Born into a good family in Pavia, Lanfranc was educated be seen on folio 121v of the Squarcialupi Codex (I-Fl in that city and more generally in northern Italy. He 87). His fame continued well into the fifteenth century. left Italy for France while still a young man and made The French musicologist Fetis rediscovered Landini\u2019s his reputation as an itinerant teacher in the area around music in 1827. Avranches. In 1042, he entered the new monastery at Bec (founded 1041); he was abbot of Saint-\u00c9tienne, Not only was Landini a very prolific composer, but Caen, in 1063; in 1070, he was made archbishop of the survival of his musical works attests to his popular- Canterbury. He had a dual reputation, first as a teacher ity and importance. His extant works represent almost a and scholar and later as a brilliant administrator and quarter of the entire known repertoire of secular Trecento leader. music. One hundred fifty-four works can be definitely attributed to Landini: ninety ballate for two voices, His scholarship falls into two periods, before and forty-two ballate for three voices, eight ballate that after his entry into Bec. The earlier works, no longer survive in two-part and three-part versions, one French extant, are on the Trivium; after 1042, he devoted him- virelai, nine madrigals for two or three voices, one self to theology, writing commentaries on the Psalms three-voice canonic madrigal, and one caccia. Works and Pauline epistles that circulated widely. About 1063, of doubtful authenticity include two or three ballate for he wrote a treatise De sacramento corporis et sanguinis two voices, and four motets with fragmentary single Christi, against the opinions of Berengar of Tours\u2019s De voices. More than 145 works by Landini are contained eucharistia, and to which Berengar replied in De sacra in the Squarcialupi Codex. coena. Berengar\u2019s ideas caused widespread antagonism and were finally condemned by Pope Gregory VII in Landini\u2019s musical style is multifaceted; he wrote 1079. The issue centers on the changes taking place in works ranging from simple dances to complex isorhyth- the bread and wine of the eucharist in order for them to mic and canonic pieces. His compositional technique is become the body and blood of Christ. Both Berengar often described as a synthesis of French and Italian mu- and Lanfranc believed in the Real Presence, but they sical influences. The melodic inventiveness of Landini\u2019s differed on the necessity and type of any change in the elements, Berengar insisting that no material alteration was needed and Lanfranc arguing for outward identity concealing inner grace. The question was compounded 398","by difficulties of language: no clearer statement of the LAUFENBERG, HEINRICH central issue was to be possible until the introduction of Aristotelian notions of substance and accident in the heid Langmann was betrothed to Gottfried Teufel, who 13th century. died shortly afterward. Following what she describes as a lengthy spiritual struggle, around 1330, Adelheid Lanfranc\u2019s leadership of the school at Bec made it into entered the Franconian Dominican cloister of Engelthal. one of the most famous of its day, and pupils included Regarded as a particularly prosperous and renowned Anselm of Bec, Ivo of Chartres, and Guitmund of Aversa cloister, Engelthal housed the daughters of many of the (later Pope Alexander II). He was a valued counselor prominent burghers of the area. Among them was Chris- to Duke William of Normandy (the Conqueror) despite tina Ebner, whose widespread praise included bishops having declared William\u2019s marriage invalid. and kings. Adelheid was cloistered at Engelthal in 1350 when King Charles IV (later Emperor Charles) visited Lanfranc was a great holder of synods (in 1075, the monastery for spiritual advice. She was educated 1076, 1078, 1081), which he used to promulgate canon in Latin and learned to read and write in her vernacu- law, and he was the first to create separate courts of lar German dialect. Shortly after Christina wrote her ecclesiastical jurisdiction. His legal turn of mind (he spiritual autobiography, Adelheid recorded her visions seems to have practiced or at least studied civil law in and revelations along with a lengthy prayer dedicated Pavia) was coupled with a traditionalist viewpoint, so to the Trinity. Her Revelations, extant in three manu- that his outlook reminds us of Carolingian attitudes script variations, were written in a Bavarian dialect and and practices rather than any innovation. The collec- chronicle her spiritual life from 1330 to 1344. While the tion of canon law, the so-called Collectio Lanfranci, content is essentially autohagiographical, representing which Lanfranc brought to Canterbury from Bec, has the religious experiences of its author, there are stylistic an old-fashioned cast, in contrast to the Collection in similarities and thematic parallels with the mystical Seventy-Four Titles (Diversorum patrum sententiae) or lives narrated in the convent chronicles of Helfta, Toss, Ivo of Chartres\u2019s Panormia and other legal works, the Unterlinden, Diessenhoven, and Adlehausen. Influenced new breed of legal collections that it seems Lanfranc by biblical sources, especially the Song of Songs, Adel- preferred to ignore. heid\u2019s ecstatic mystricism reflects the bride mysticism of the Middle Ages. Her texts, as well as several other As archbishop of Canterbury, Lanfranc replaced manuscripts written by Dominican cloistered women many Saxon bishops with Normans, to the displeasure in Southern Germany, were rediscovered and edited by of some in the English church, but in doing so he in- nineteenth-century scholars interested in the linguistic creased ties with the Continent and with Gregory VII\u2019s history of German. reforms, with which, at least in the area of the moral reform of the church, he was largely in sympathy. Lan- See also Charles IV; Ebner, Margaretha franc rebuilt the church at Canterbury and established its library. He reestablished many of the old monastic Further Reading privileges and lands. Die Offenbarungen der Adelheid Langmann: Klosterfrau zu See also Anselm of Bec; Gregory VII, Pope; Englethal, ed. Phillip Strauch. Strasbourg: Tr\u00fcbner, 1878. William I Hale, Rosemary Drage. \u201cImitatio Mariae: Motherhood Motifs Further Reading in Devotional Memoirs.\u201d Mystics Quarterly 16 (1990): 193\u2013214. Lanfranc of Bec. Opera. PL 150. 1\u2013782. \u2014\u2014. The Letters of Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, ed. Hindsley, Leonard P. The Mystics of Engelthal: Writings from a Medieval Monastery. New York: St. Martin\u2019s Press, 1998. Helen Clover and Margaret T. Gibson. Oxford: Clarendon, 1979. Rosemary Drage Hale Gibson, Margaret T. Lanfranc of Bec. Oxford: Clarendon, 1978. LAUFENBERG, HEINRICH Huygens, R.B.C. \u201cB\u00e9renger de Tours, Lanfranc et Bernold de (ca. 1390\u20131460) Constance.\u201d Sacris Euridiri 16 (1965): 355\u2013403. Southern, Richard W., ed. Essays in Medieval History. London: Laufenberg, a cleric active in Freiburg im Breisgau and Macmillan, 1948. Zofingen, composed the bulk of his verses between 1413 and 1445. In the latter year he entered a cloister Lesley J. Smith in Strasbourg that had been founded by Rulman Mer- swin (d. 1382), the lay mystic and guiding spirit for the LANGMANN, ADELHEID so-called Friends of God. Laufenberg is best known (ca. 1312\u20131375) as the author of some 120 sacred songs written in the German vernacular, among them Christmas and New Born to a politically and socially powerful family in Year\u2019s verses. His Christmas song Jn einem krippfly Nuremberg around 1312, at the age of thirteen, Adel- 399","LAUFENBERG, HEINRICH Further Reading lag ein kind (In a little crib lay a child) is representa- Schiendorfer, Max. \u201cDer W\u00e4chter und die M\u00fcllerin \u2018verkert,\u2019 tive in its straightforward narration, plain diction, and \u2018geistlich.\u2019 Fu\u00dfnoten zur Liedkontrafaktur bei Heinrich heartfelt religious devotion. Especially pronounced Laufenberg.\u201d In Contemplata aliis tradere, Studien zum Ver- is Laufenberg\u2019s veneration of the Virgin Mary; few h\u00e4ltnis von Literatur und Spiritualit\u00e4t. Festschrift f\u00fcr Alois medieval poets command his breadth of Mariological Haas zum 60. Geburtstag, eds. Claudia Brinker, et al. Bern: symbols and tropes. The culmination of his Mariology Lang, 1995, pp. 273\u2013316. is the Buck der Figuren (1441), a massive versified catalogue and interpretative commentary on more than Wachinger, Burghart. \u201cNotizen zu den Liedern Heinrich Laufen- 100 prefigurations of the Virgin in the Old Testament. bergs.\u201d In Medium aevum deutsch, Beitr\u00e4ge zur deutschen Another lengthy work from his pen is the Regimen Literatur des hohen und sp\u00e4ten Mittelalters. Festschrift f\u00fcr sanitatis (1429), a combination cosmology and medical Kurt Ruh zum 65. Geburtstag, eds. Dietrich Huschenbett, et reference tool of more than 6,000 German verses based al. T\u00fcbingen; Niemeyer, 1979, pp. 349\u2013385. on many source texts, Avicenna among them. The Regi- men, besides treating health concerns, pregnancy, and William C. McDonald child-care, examines the solar system, the elements, and natural phenomena\u2014including pestilence. Very popu- LA\u0417AMON OR LAYAMON lar, Laufenberg\u2019s Regimen was an early printed book. (fl. ca. 1200-25?) Rounding out his longer works is a 1437 translation, in 15,000 verses, of a fourteenth-century discourse on Author of the Brut, a major poem of the early ME salvation, Speculum humanae salvationis. period that contains, among other items of interest, the first account in English of the Arthurian legend. The prolific author, who had regular ecclesiastical La3amon identifies himself in the opening lines of his duties as pastor, curate, and dean, evinces broad learn- poem as a priest residing in Ernle3e (Areley Kings, ing, theological sophistication, and mastery of a wide Worcestershire). Having resolved to write a history range of vernacular and Latin literary forms. At home of England, he says, he consulted as source material in verse and prose, Laufenberg translated Latin church Bede\u2019s Ecclesiastical History, a Latin book written by hymns and sequences and composed \u201cmixed\u201d poetry, Sts. Albin and Augustine, and Wace\u2019s Roman de Brut. In that is, songs in alternating Latin and German verses. fact La3amon appears to have made little use of Bede\u2019s Musical composer and self-aware author in one person history (tentatively identified by scholars as the OE (Laufenberg liked to sign and date his compositions), translation of Bede) or the untitled Latin text (identified he influenced hymn writing in the Reformation and still more tentatively as a book containing selections by beyond. As Martin Luther was to do, Heinrich Laufen- Albin and Augustine of Canterbury, the Latin text of berg penned many pointed contrafactura, appropriating Bede, or a mere fiction invented by the poet to display secular texts and melodies for the Christian sphere. His his erudition). Thus, with some significant modifications most famous example\u2014and his most famous song\u2014is and additions, La3amon\u2019s poem is essentially an English Ich w\u00f6lt, daz ich doheime wer (I wished I were at home). paraphrase of Wace\u2019s Brut rendered into alliterative long The \u201chome\u201d of which the singer speaks is heaven; he lines, some 16,000 in number. Because of an allusion longs for a home far from earth where he can gaze in the opening lines of the poem to Eleanor, \u201cwho was eternally upon God. In like vein, Laufenberg wrote Henry\u2019s queen,\u201d it is generally accepted that the Brut was Christian dawn songs and adapted secular love songs written some time after the death of Henry II in 1189 for worship of the Virgin Mary. She appears typically and possibly even after the death of Eleanor herself in in his verse as the m\u00fclnerin (the miller\u2019s wife\/female 1204; but scholarly opinion relating to the precise date operator of a mill), a figure who threshes, grinds, and of composition ranges from the late 12th century to the bakes the biblical \u201ccorn of wheat\u201d (John 12:24) that is second half of the 13th. Jesus Christ. Evident everywhere in Laufenberg\u2019s work is the desire to increase piety in his broad audience, be The Brut survives in two manuscripts dating from these nuns, religious societies, or laymen. That his texts 1250\u20131350. Although both are thought to derive from were read silently by individual readers for meditation a common archetype, BL Cotton Caligula A.ix is com- and private devotion is very probable. monly held to be closer to its exemplar\u2014and hence to La3amon\u2019s original text\u2014than is BL Cotton Otho Scholarly research on Heinrich Laufenberg has la- C.xiii. The latter is considered an inferior text because bored under the loss of unique versions of most of his its scribe apparently attempted to modernize his original creations, the result of destruction of manuscripts in by eliminating many of the rhetorical embellishments Strasbourg during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. A intended to give it what has been called an \u201cantique critical edition of his works has not yet appeared and colouring\u201d (Stanley). These embellishments include would necessarily contain presumed transcriptions. lengthy repetitions of detail and incident and archaisms of the type that survive in and characterize the Caligula 400","text\u2014that is, the many coinages and poetic compounds LEO III, EMPEROR with a distinctly Anglo-Saxon ring about them and the marked preference for words of Anglo-Saxon origin verse, like his language and themes, after that of the OE (many of which have been replaced in the Otho text by poets. La3amon\u2019s basic metrical unit is the alliterative French loanwords). long line consisting of two two-stress hemistichs linked by alliteration, rhyme, or both. His use of rhyme as well In subject matter and method La3amon imitates as alliteration, of a longer line (to accommodate the Wace so as to be able to afford his readers a history of hypotactic constructions of ME), and of some metrical the Britons from the time of Brutus, great-grandson patterns that do not conform to the metrical patterns of of Aeneas, to the ascendancy of the Saxons over the OE verse suggest that La3amon was working within Britons during the reign of Cadwalader in the 7th cen- a much more flexible prosody than that governing the tury. Lazamon\u2019s additions to and modifications of his composition of OE poetry; however, his verse should Anglo-Norman source have much to tell us, however, not be relegated, as some of his critics have suggested, about his purpose in adapting Wace\u2019s poem into Eng- to the ranks of \u201cpopular\u201d poetry. Rather it is an evolu- lish: as scholars have been quick to notice, Lazamon\u2019s tionary form of the \u201cclassical\u201d alliterative verse of the numerous accounts of feasts, sea voyages, and battles, English Middle Ages. many of which have no counterparts in Wace\u2019s poem, evoke the ethos of OE poetic accounts of such events and See also Geoffrey of Monmouth; Wace seem to have been intended to do so. Similarly Wace\u2019s interest in love, courtesy, and the ideals of chivalry is Further Reading not one that La3amon shares: indeed, in his adaptation of many of the events described in Wace\u2019s poem, we Primary Sources find La3amon attempting to recreate the ethos of the heroic, as opposed to the chivalric, world. His Arthur, Brook, G.L., and R.F. Leslie, eds. La3amon: Brut. 2 vols. EETS for example, is not a Norman king presiding over a o.s. 250, 277. London: Oxford University Press, 1963\u201378. chivalric court as in Wace, but a Saxon chieftain as disposed to committing acts of brutality and violence Bzdyl, Donald G., trans. Layamon\u2019s Brut: A History of the Brit- as to rewarding his faithful retainers, after a battle, with ons. Binghamton: MRTS, 1989. rings, garments, and horses. As in the meadhalls of OE poetry, there are scops in Arthur\u2019s court and dream (joy) Secondary Sources when a victory is being celebrated; by the same token here and elsewhere in the poem there prevails, as in OE New CBEL 1:460\u201363 verse, an overwhelming sense of the role played by Fate Le Saux, Fran\u00e7oise H.M. La3amon\u2019s Brut: The Poem and Its in the human lives, but especially in the lives of those destined to enter the field of battle. Sources. Cambridge: Brewer, 1989. Le Saux, Fran\u00e7oise H.M. The Text and Tradition of La3amon\u2019s Further evidence of La3amon\u2019s familiarity with and desire to imitate the verse of OE poets can be discerned Brut. Cambridge: Brewer, 1994. in his use of formulas, not simply as tags and line fillers Reiss, Edmund, et al. Arthurian Legend and Literature: An An- but also to advance his narrative in a manner in keeping with the formulaic practices of OE poetry. Not surpris- notated Bibliography. Vol. 1. New York: Garland, 1984, pp. ingly, perhaps, the Brut is most noticeably formulaic 79\u201380. in passages tliat have no counterpart in Wace and in Stanley, E.G. \u201cLayamon\u2019s Antiquarian Sentiments.\u201d M\u00c6 38 which La3amon seems to have been particularly eager (1969): 23\u201337. to recreate the ethos of the past, such as his accounts of feasts, sea voyages, and battles. Equally indicative of James Noble La3amon\u2019s admiration for the verse of the OE poets is his use of certain rhetorical tropes and patterns found LEO III, EMPEROR in their poetry. With an unmistakable sense of what (c. 680\u2013741, r. 717\u2013741) he is about La3amon employs, with varying degrees of frequency, the kenning, the descriptive epithet, the Leo III (Conon) was a Byzantine\u2014i.e., eastern Ro- simile, litotes, variation, chiasmus, and more complex man\u2014emperor. In older works he was mistakenly called structural repetitions, such as the envelope pattern, \u201cthe Isaurian,\u201d but research has now established that repetition parallels, and balance parallels. he was from Germanicea (modern Marash or Mara\u0161 in southeastern Turkey). His native tongue was Syriac La3amon\u2019s unmistakable nostalgia for the pre- or Arabic, and as regards religion he was most likely a Conquest period is reflected not only in the poem\u2019s style Jacobite (Syrian Monophysite). and content but also in its verse form. He patterns his Conon probably changed his original name to the more \u201cRoman\u201d Leo and became religiously orthodox when he joined the Byzantine army. As a young man he became a prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of Emperor Justinian II during Justinian\u2019s second reign (705\u2013711), and he continued to rise during the short reigns of emperors Philippicus (711\u2013713) and Anastasius II (713\u2013715). When Theodo- sius III (715\u2013717) deposed the latter, Leo marched on Constantinople to avenge Anastasius. With a large Arab land and naval force also approaching Constantinople, 401","LEO III, EMPEROR Italian affairs.) \u2014\u2014\u2014. Chronographia: The Chronicle of Theophanes Confes- Theodosius voluntarily handed Leo the throne. Leo\u2019s greatest achievement was to thwart the Arab sor\u2014Byzantine and Near Eastern History, A.D. 284\u2013813, trans., with introduction and commentary, Cyril Mango and siege of Constantinople in 717\u2013718. Although the Arabs Roger Scott, with Geoffrey Greatrex. Oxford and New York: continued to be a threat, they never again endangered the Oxford University Press, 1997. existence of the empire. Also important was his promul- Turtledove, Harry, trans. The Chronicle of Theophanes: An Eng- gation of the Ecloga, the first Byzantine legal collection lish Translation of Annus Mundi 6095\u20136305 (a.d. 602\u2013813), since the Corpus iuris civilis of Justinian I. with Introduction and Notes. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982. Leo\u2019s espousal of Iconoclasm, which condemned religious art, in 726 caused a revolt in those portions Critical Studies of Italy still under imperial control (Sicily had already shown signs of resistance early in Leo\u2019s reign). Tax Anastos, Milton V. \u201cThe Transfer of Illyricum, Calabria, and Sic- increases imposed by Leo may also have been a factor ily to the Jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople in in this revolt. Pope Gregory II\u2014who lacked sufficient 732\u2013733.\u201d In Silloge Bizantina in Onore di Silvio Giuseppe resources to withstand the Lombards and thus was still Mercati. Rome, 1957, pp. 14\u201331. dependent on the Byzantines\u2019 military power\u2014urged the Italians to exercise moderation, even though Leo \u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cLeo III\u2019s Edict against the Images in the Year 726\u2013727 (probably at about this time) removed parts of Illyricum and Italo-Byzantine Relations between 726 and 730.\u201d Byzan- from papal jurisdiction. Pope Gregory III, who was less tinischen Forschungen, 3, 1968, pp. 281\u2013327. conciliatory, also continued a limited cooperation with the empire; but by this time the popes were allies of the Barnard, Leslie W. The Graeco-Roman and Oriental Background empire rather than its subjects. Leo may have caused of the Iconoclastic Controversy. Byzantina Neerlandica, 5. some immigration to Italy from the empire\u2019s heartland, Leiden: Brill, 1974. though this mainly occurred during the reign of his son. Refugees, many of them monks, augmented the Gero, Stephen. Byzantine Iconoclasm during the Reign of Leo existing Italo-Greek population\u2014especially monastic III, with Particular Attention to the Oriental Sources. Corpus communities\u2014in Rome and central and southern Italy. Scriptorum Christianorum Orientorum, 384, Subsidia, 52. Iconoclasm seems to have been little enforced in Byz- Louvain: Corpussco, 1977. (Source for Leo\u2019s early years, antine Italy. though occasionally mistaken on western matters.) Further Reading Hodgkin, Thomas. Italy and Her Invaders, Vol. 6, The Lombard Kingdom. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1916. (Classic Editions and Translations account.) Gouilland, Jean. \u201cAux origines de l\u2019iconoclasme: Le t\u00e9moinage Noble, Thomas F. X. The Republic of Saint Peter: The Birth de Gr\u00e8goire II.\u201d Travaux et M\u00e9moires, 3, 1968, pp. 243\u2013367. of the Papal State, 680\u2013825. Philadelphia: University of (Greek text and French translation of two letters of Pope Pennsylvania Press, 1984. (Full bibliography through the Gtegory II to Leo III protesting Leo\u2019s Iconoclastic policies.) early 1980s.) Le liber pontificalis, ed. Louis Duchesne. Biblioth\u00e8que des Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle \u00c9coles Fran\u00e7aises d\u2019Ath\u00e8nes et de Rome. Paris, 1955. (Not Ages, 476\u2013752. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979. a new edition, but incorporates the editor\u2019s corrections, dele- tions, and emendations up to his death and thus supersedes Martin Arbagi earlier printings. The life of Gregory II in Liber pontificalis is the most important source for the effects of Leo III\u2019s poli- LEO IX, POPE (1002\u20131054) cies in Italy. As of the present writing there was no English translation of Gregory II\u2019s biography or of any other from the Pope Leo IX was born as Bruno of Egisheim in 1002 Iconoclastic period.) into a noble Alsatian family. His early studies were at the regional center in Lorraine of Toul, where, in 1017, he Nicephorus, Saint, Patriarch of Constantinople. Breviarium became a canon at the cathedral. Related to the German historicum (Short History), trans., with commentary, Cyril ruler Conrad II, he served prominently in the royal army Mango. Dumbarton Oaks Texts, 10; Corpus Fontium His- in Lombardy in 1026. Conrad appointed him the bishop toriae Byzantinae, 13. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, of Toul in 1027. Inspired by the monastic reform efforts 1990. (Short chronicle covering some of the same rime as of the tenth and eleventh centuries, Bruno sought to Theophanes. Nicephorus was an Iconophile patriarch of bring the fruits of these movements to such monasteries Constantinople, dismissed by Emperor Leo V.) in his diocese as St. Aper, St. Di\u00e9, Moyenmourier, and Remiremont. Reform of the diocesan clergy also was Santoro, Anthony, trans. Theophanes\u2019Chronographia: A Chroni- the order of a number of the synods he held. His efforts cle of Eighth-Century Byzantium. Gorham, Me.: Heathersfield, to reinvigorate his diocese as the bishop of Toul would 1982. (With maps; translates only the notices from 717 to 803, prepare him for extending these activities to the whole but these years included most of the Iconoclastic epoch.) Western Church when he became pope. Theophanes. Chronographia, ed. Charles de Boor. Leipzig: The emperor Henry III, his cousin, selected him to be Teubner, 1883\u20131885. (Reprint, 1963. Principal Greek source pope in 1048, after the brief reigns of Henry\u2019s previous for Leo\u2019s reign, but badly informed and often confused on two appointees, and he was crowned at St. Peters with the acclamation of the Roman people. From Lorraine he would summon such like-minded reformers as Humbert, abbot of Moyenmoutiers; Frederick of Liege, the future 402","Pope Stephen IX, and Hugh of Remiremont. Joining LEODEGUNDIA the men of the north would be such Italian church- men as Peter Damian and Hildebrand, the future Pope by Urban II in 1095. This aggressive leadership, how- Gregory VII, to become the nucleus of what became ever, also led to the great schism of 1054, a separation the college of cardinals. Aided by the efforts of these that has had a profound importance in the history of and other reforming churchmen, the new pope sought the church and of Europe as a whole. Few papacies, if through the holding of numerous regional synods in any, have marked such a major change in the direction Italy, Germany, and the kingdom of the French to of the church. curb the problems of simony, nicolaitism (opposition to celibacy), and violence against churchmen and the See also Conrad II; Gregory VII, Pope; Henry III; poor and to deal with numerous other problems facing Damian, Peter; Urban II, Pope the church in this period. Pope Leo presided over these gatherings and exhibited the presence of the papacy to Further Reading a substantial portion of Western Christendom, quite unlike that of his predecessors. He extended papal Analecta Bollandiana 25 (1906): 258\u2013297 [Brussels, 1892ff.; protection to monasteries in a series of charters and in continues Acta Sanctorum]. 1050 issued a canonical collection that drew on earlier rulings to support his papal activities. His aggressive Brucker, P. P. L\u2019Alsace et l\u2019Eglise au temps du pape saint L\u00e9on attempt to deal with the problems faced by the church IX (Bruno d\u2019Egisheim) 1002\u20131054, 2 vols. Strasbourg: F. X. is also apparent in his personally leading an army into Le Roux, 1889. southern Italy in 1053, with the approval of Henry III, to oppose the Normans, a major preoccupation in the Fliche, A. La r\u00e9forme gr\u00e9gorienne, vol. 1 Louvain: Spicilegium latter part of his papacy, because they were such a threat sacrum louvaniense, 1924. to the ecclesiastical and papal political holdings in the region. The Normans defeated the army of the pope in Leo IX, in Acta Sanctorum. London: Snowden, 164lff. April 11, June of that year and held Leo captive. Incensed by this pp. 641\u2013673 [lives of saints by calendar]. invasion into a region where the Byzantines had claims, Patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople closed Migne, Jaques-Paul, ed. Patrologia Latina, vol. 143. Paris: Migne, the Latin churches in his city. Humbert was dispatched 1882, cols. 457\u2013800. from Rome to lead a papal embassy to try to solve the problem. The result was not the desired rapprochement Nicol, D. M. \u201cByzantium and the Papacy in the Eleventh Century.\u201d but a mutual excommunication by Humbert and the pa- Journal of Ecclesiastical History 13 (1962): 1\u201320. triarch and the beginning, in July of 1054, of the great schism between Rome and Constantinople, between the Tellenbach, Gerd. The Church in Western Europe from the Tenth Western Church and the Eastern Church that continues to the Early Twelfth Century, trans. T. Reuter. Cambridge, to the present. Pope Leo, however, was not alive to wit- England: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ness the separation. He died in April of that year in Rome shortly after his release from Norman captivity. Daniel F. Callahan John of F\u00e9camp called Pope Leo \u201cthe marvelous LEODEGUNDIA pope\u201d (papa mirabilis), a title that in many ways he well deserved. His papacy marks an important moment In addition to Egeria, other Iberian women were in- in the history of the church. His achievements provided volved in literary activities in the early Middle Ages. the foundation for the Gregorian reform and the future Some wrote letters of a more or less artistic nature. papal monarchy. He brought the presence of the bishop Some participated, in various ways, in producing texts. of Rome to many parts of Western Christendom, in a Such is the case with Leodegundia of Bobadilla, a Gali- manner comparable to the papal global travels in the late cian nun who wrote a Codex regularum, a Visigothic twentieth century. At the Council of Rheims, he used the compendium that was widely read for centuries. Her title of universal to emphasize the scope of the power manuscript is one of the oldest versions of this work, of the vicar of Peter. His very name demonstrates his which typically contains the teachings and lives of the awareness of the singular importance of his position, holy fathers of the church. so clearly delineated in the Petrine doctrine of Leo the Great. But he also utilized the Donation of Constantine The manuscript, which was moved from Oviedo to to justify his actions in southern Italy where he aggres- the Escorial (a.I.13) in the sixteenth century, includes sively displayed his leadership in a new papal militarism the following colophon: \u201cO vos omnes qui legeritis hunc that looked forward to the summons of the First Crusade codicem mementote\/clientula et exigua Leodigundia qui hunc scripsi in monasterio Bobatelle regnante Ad- efonso principe in era 950 quisquis pro alium oraver it semetipsum deum commendat.\u201d The manuscript appears to refer to King Alfonso II and presumably was written in 850 rather than 950. Leodegundia\u2019s calligraphy has been highly praised. However, it is logical to assume she did more than copy the manuscript. In addition to the usual teachings and lives of the holy fathers, her version of the Codex regularum contains St. Jerome\u2019s letters to women friends, St. Augustine\u2019s letter to his sister Marceline, St. Leander\u2019s letters to his sister Florentina, and the lives 403","LEODEGUNDIA manuscript. After the Mamluk conquest of the city of Acre (Israel) in 1291, Isaac, son of Samuel, was one of of a number of women saints. That the additions have the few to escape to Spain. When he arrived in Toledo to do with women would seem not to be a coincidence. in 1305, he heard reports about the existence of a newly Neither would the fact that some of the women saints discovered midrash of Rabbi Shim\u2019on ben Yohai. Os- are of Spanish origin, and one, St. Melanie, is believed tensibly written in Israel, the manuscript was unfamiliar to have made her living by writing. Rather, this collec- to Isaac. He sought out Mos\u00e9s de Le\u00f3n, who assured tion appears to be a mirror in which its author and her him that he owned the original ancient manuscript upon audience, the nuns of her convent, recognize themselves, which the Zohar was based and offered to show it to a feminine adaptation of a masculine work. him if he came to his residence in Avila. After their separation, Moses became ill and died in Ar\u00e9valo on his Further Reading way home. When Isaac learned of the news, he traveled to Avila, where he was told that the wife of provincial Antol\u00edn, G. \u201cHistoria y descripti\u00f3n de un Codex regularum del tax-collector Joseph of Avila was living. After Mos\u00e9s de siglo LX (Eiblioteca del Escorial: a.1.13).\u201d Ciudad de Dios Le\u00f3n\u2019s death, Joseph de Avila\u2019s wife had made a deal 75 (1908), 23\u201333, 304\u201316, 460\u201371, 637\u201349. in which she would offer her son\u2019s hand in marriage to the daughter of Mos\u00e9s de Le\u00f3n\u2019s widow in exchange Benedictines of Bouvert. Colophons de manuscrits occidentaux for the ancient manuscript. During Isaac\u2019s visit, Joseph des origines au XVIe sie\u201dle. Fribourg, 1976, 36. de Avila\u2019s wife denied that her late husband had ever possessed such a book, insisting instead that Mos\u00e9s de P\u00e9rez de Urbel, J. Los monjes espa\u00f1oles en la Edad Media. 2 Le\u00f3n had composed it himself. vols. Madrid, 1934. Mos\u00e9s de Le\u00f3n attributed the work to Shim\u2019on ben Cristina Gonz\u00e1lez Yohai, a famous teacher of the second century a.d. known for his piety and mysticism. Ben Yohai lived LE\u00d3N, MOS\u00c9S DE (1250\u20131305) in Israel, where he reportedly spent twelve years in seclusion in a cave. After his death, his book was either Spanish cabalist. Cabala means \u201creceiving,\u201d referring to hidden away or secretly transmitted from master to that which has been handed down by tradition. By the disciple. When Mos\u00e9s de Le\u00f3n began circulating book- time of Mos\u00e9s de Le\u00f3n, the term was used to denote the lets among his friends containing previously unknown mystic and esoteric teachings and practices of a growing teachings and tales, he claimed to be a mere scribe body of mystical literature. copying from an ancient book of wisdom. In addition, he distributed portions of the book rather than entire Little is known about his life; he settled in Guadala- copies. No complete manuscript of the work has ever jara sometime between 1275 and 1280 and relocated to been found. When the Zohar was first printed in Italy Avila sometime after 1291. Best known for his revelation in the fifteenth century, the editors combined several of the Zohar (The Book of Splendor or Enlightenment) manuscripts to produce a complete text. Other manu- to fellow cabalists, he also composed twenty cabalistic scripts located later were added to an additional volume works, only two of which have been printed: Ha-Nephesh which was printed later. Today, most standard editions ha Hakhamah (The Wise Soul) and Shekel ha-Kodesh. comprise some 1,100 leaves consisting of at least two (The Holy Shekel, or Weight). By 1264 he undertook the dozen separate compositions. study of Maimonides\u2019 Neoplatonic philosophy, a belief system that rejected a literal interpretation of Torah and The Zohar consists of a mystical commentary on sought to spiritualize its teachings. the Pentateuch, describing how God\u2014referred to by the cabalists as Ein Sof (the infinite, endless)\u2014rules While in Guadalajara, Mos\u00e9s de Le\u00f3n composed a the universe through the Ten Sefirot (Ten Spheres). In mystical midrash, which he titled Midrash ha-Ne\u2019elam other cabalistic texts, the sefirot are often organized in (Concealed, Esoteric Midrash). A midrash is an analyti- the form of a hierarchy of divine emanations from the cal text that seeks to uncover the meaning of biblical pas- apex of the Godhead with Keter or Da\u2019at (the highest sages, words and phrases and often employs philology, aspect of God) being followed by Hokhmah and Binah etymology, hermeneutics, homiletics, and imagination. (divine wisdom and understanding respectively). Ein This work represents the earliest stratum of the Zohar Sof is rarely emphasized in the Zohar. Instead, the work and contains commentary on parts of the Torah and the focuses on the sefirot as the manifestations of Ein Sof, Book of Ruth. Between 1280 and 1286, he produced its mystical attributes in which God thinks, feels, and the main body of the Zohar, a mystical commentary on responds to the human realm. The characters include the Torah written in Aramaic, which is spoken by Rabbi Rabbi Shim\u2019on and his comrades, biblical figures and Shim\u2019on ben Yohai and his disciples as they ruminate the sefirot. At times the distinction between the latter over distinct passages of the Torah. The text upon which the Zohar was purportedly based was said to have been sent from Israel to Cata- lonia, where it fell into the hands of Mos\u00e9s de Le\u00f3n of Guadalajara, who assumed the task of copying and disseminating different portions of it from the original 404","two is ambiguous. Throughout the work, the Zohar LE\u00d3NIN never loses sight of its goal: to create a mystical com- mentary on the Torah in which God is simultaneously its antiquity became accepted by cabalists, but as late revealed and concealed. To study Torah is to meditate as the mid-fifteenth century was not read or circulated on the name of God. As Daniel C. Matt explains, \u201cZohar except in small circles. It did not become the Bible of is an adventure, a challenge to the normal workings of the Cabalah movement until after the Jewish expulsion consciousness. It dares you to examine your usual ways from Spain in 1492. After 1530, Safed (Israel) gained of making sense, your assumptions about tradition, God, importance as a meeting place for cabalists. Among and self. Textual analysis is essential, but you must en- them was Mos\u00e9s Cordovero who wrote two systematic gage Zohar and cultivate a taste for its multiple layers of books based on the Zohar, along with an extensive com- meaning. It is tempting and safe to reduce the symbols mentary. Isaac Luria developed a new system based on to a familiar scheme: psychological, historical, literary, Cabalah that relied heavily on portions of the Zohar. The or religious. But do not forfeit wonder.\u201d trend of mystical-ethical literature emerging from this circle helped popularize the Zohar\u2019s teachings as did the The authorship of the text, its method of composition messianic fervor that encouraged the dissemination of and its use of sources (contemporary or ancient) have its enigmas. If early qabbalists had drawn an analogy remained polemical among scholars. Among the most between spread of Cabalah and the redemption of Israel, representative opinions in this controversy are Jellinek, in the sixteenth century, studying the Zohar became Graetz, Scholem, and Giller. Jellinek concluded that elevated to the level of a divine command, equal in im- many of the passages in the Zohar were derived from portance to studying the Bible and the Talmud. Today, ancient sources and that Mos\u00e9s de Le\u00f3n was at least the Zohar retains its distinction as the fundamental text one of the authors of the work. Graetz concurred with of cabalistic thought. Jellinek on the nature of its sources, but believed that the text represented a forgery executed entirely by Mos\u00e9s de See also Ibn Adret, Solomon; Maimonides Le\u00f3n. Scholem argued that the text was purely a product of the thirteenth century and was based on medieval Jew- Further Reading ish Neoplatonism and Gnosticism. For him, the author and the translator were one and the same. More recent Fine, L. Essential Papers on Kabbalah. New York, 1995. scholarship in the tradition of Giller and Liebes tends to Giller, P. Reading the Zohar: The Sacred Text of the Kabbalah. view the Zohar as the product of a group collaboration among thinkers who grappled with cabalistic doctrine. Oxford, 2001. Mos\u00e9s de Le\u00f3n was a main figure in this group but is Holtz, B. (ed.) Back to the Sources: Reading the Classic Jewish not the sole author. Texts. New York, 1984. Regarding the overall structure of the Zohar, there is Liebes, Y. Studies in the Zohar. Trans. A. Schwartz, St. Nakache, some consensus among scholars. The work is divided into distinct sections or strata, each of which has its and P. Peli. Albany, N.Y., 1993. own literary nature and mystical doctrines which are Matt, D. C. (ed.) Zoliar: Book of Enlightenment. New York, unique to it. The Midrash ha-Ne\u2019elam is the earliest and is followed by the long midrash on the Torah and 1983. 38. another group of compositions resembling it; the Tiqqu- nei ha-Zohar (Embellishments on the Zohar) and the Matthew B. Raden Ra\u2019aya Meheimna (The Faithful Shepherd) constitute another stratum. The Midrash ha-Ne\u2019elam establishes L\u00c9ONIN (Leoninus; fl. 1154\u2013ca. 1201) an organizing fulcrum for the entire work in creating a protagonist Shim\u2019on barYohai who does not appear until Anonymous 4\u2019s epithet optimus organista (\u201cthe best later. Until his subsequent appearance in the text, the singer\/improviser\/composer\/compiler\/notator of or- teachings are conveyed by other rabbis from the second ganum\u201d) assured L\u00e9onin a significant place in music century with no single dominant figure. Further, there history long before any convincing identification of is a pattern of development in which certain ideas and the person was suggested. Since he was responsible for themes are developed and reach their culmination over the new polyphonic repertory of the cathedral of Notre- the course of the work\u2019s composition. Dame in Paris in the decades after its founding in the 1160s, his place was evidently among the dignitaries of The Zohar was not accepted immediately as an its ecclesiastical hierarchy, but the familiar use of the ancient work. Students of Rabbi Solomon ibn Adret Latin diminutive of his name, as \u201cMagister Leoninus,\u201d of Barcelona treated it with restraint. In 1340, the in the theoretical treatise of Anonymous 4\u2014the only philosopher and cabalist Joseph ibn Waqqar warned source for information on his considerable musical about the preponderance of errors in the book. Slowly, achievement\u2014long seemed to belie this. Anonymous 4 credited L\u00e9onin with the Magnus liber organi de gradali et antifonario some one hundred years after its compilation, a fact that recommends cautious use of his testimony and the need for independent verifica- tion. Three major manuscript sources (W1, F, and W2) confirm a repertory of organum that fits Anonymous 4\u2019s 405","L\u00c9ONIN initial campaigns were directed against the Byzantine enclave, and he regained Sidonia and M\u00e1laga. In 572, description of a Magnus liber organi, and the melodies he reimposed Visigothic rule on C\u00f3rdoba. Following the of the plainchant that form the basis of that organum death of his brother Liuva I, Leovigild turned his atten- match notated plainchant sources used at Notre-Dame. tion northward, and in a series of campaigns between Still, this does not clarify what L\u00e9onin\u2019s role may have 573 and 577 made himself master of most of the north been in making such a book. Optimus organista sug- of the peninsula, from the Rioja to the frontiers of the gests a youthful man in full voice, while the diminutive Suevic kingdom, whose ruler Miro became tributary implies a beloved elder whose practical contributions to him. In the peaceful years of 578 and 579, the king may have been overshadowed by his administrative use- established the new town of Recco-polis, named after fulness\u2014two very different \u201cportraits\u201d of the individual. his younger son, and also set up his elder son Hermene- It may not have been so much by his initiative as by his gild in Seville as coruler with responsibility for the approval that modal rhythm became the primary innova- south. This failed when Hermenegild rebelled, at the tion of the Notre-Dame School, and there is no certain instigation of Leovigild\u2019s second wife, Goisuintha, evidence that such rhythm was subject to systematic widow of the former Visigothic king Athanagild (r. theoretical or notational principles during his lifetime. 554\u2013568). Initially Leovigild made no move to curtail his son\u2019s independence, and in 581 launched a campaign Archival evidence only recently brought to light northward to contain the Basques. There he founded establishes a probable identity for Anonymous 4\u2019s another new town, called Victoriacum (probably Olite Magister Leoninus as Magister Leoninus presbyter, a in Navarre). Only when an alliance between Hermene- canon active in the affairs of the cathedral during the gild and the Byzantines developed, symbolized by the late 12th century and a Latin poet whose hexametric former\u2019s conversion to Catholicism, did Leovigild act. Old Testament commentary, Hystorie sacre gestas ab In 583 he took M\u00e9rida and Seville, and in 584 C\u00f3rdoba, origine mundi, was long praised after his death. There where Hermenegild was captured. After the suppres- is, however, no document, except possibly the treatise sion of the revolt in the south, Leovigild overran the of Anonymous 4, to substantiate the involvement of Suevic kingdom in the northwest, where the son of his Leoninus presbyter with music at all, a striking omis- former ally Miro had recently been overthrown by a sion given the significance of the Magnus liber organi usurper. With this achieved, the Basques temporarily and the stature of the poet. Thus, while the search for pacified, and a Frankish invasion of the province of independent, corroborating evidence continues, the hy- Narbonensis repelled in 585, Leovigild had achieved a pothesis that Leonin, known also as Magister Leoninus military reunification of the Visigothic kingdom in the presbyter, was responsible for the vanguard of virtually peninsula and Septimania. To turn this into a genuine a new era in music with the Magnus liber organi should political and cultural unification required the solution of remain compelling. the theological division between Arians and Catholics, which had provided a context for factionalism and local See also P\u00e9rotin power struggles. This problem Leovigild hoped to tackle by holding a council in Toledo in 580 with the aim of Further Reading modifying the theological tenets of Arianism, to make this view of the Trinity more acceptable. In the outcome, Reckow, Fritz. Der Musiktraktat des Anonymus 4. Wiesbaden: the polarization of religious and political opinion fol- Steiner, 1967. lowing the conversion of Hermenegild in 582 made such a compromise unworkable. The only solution was the Wright, Craig. \u201cLeoninus, Poet and Musician,\u201d Journal of the acceptance by all of the uncompromising doctrinal stand American Musicological Society 39 (1986): 1\u201335. of the Catholics. It is reported in Gregory of Tours\u2019s histories that Leovigild himself secretly converted prior Sandra Pinegar to his death in 586, but the public resolution of the issue was left to his heir Reccared. LEOVIGILD (d. 586) Further Reading The brother of Liuva I (r. 568\u201372\/3), who made him coruler in 569, with responsibility for the south and Collins, R. \u201cM\u00e9rida and Toledo, 550\u2013585.\u201d In Visigothic Spain: center of the Iberian Peninsula, Leovigild proved to be New Approaches. Ed. E. James: Oxford, 1980. 189\u2013219. perhaps the greatest of the kings of Visigothic Spain. Even those who opposed his religious policies, such Stroheker, K. F. \u201cLeowigild. Aus einer Wendezeit westgotischer as Isidore of Seville and John of Biclaro, admired his Geschichte,\u201d Die Welt als Geschichte 5 (1939), 446\u2013485. military capacity and achievements. At the time of his accession the kingdom was threatened by Frankish ag- Thompson, E. A. The Goths in Spain. Oxford, 1969, 57\u201391. gression from the north and Byzantine aggression in the southeast. Much of the north of the peninsula and Roger Collins various areas in the south, including the city of C\u00f3r- doba, had broken free of royal control. An independent Suevic kingdom survived in the northwest. Leo-vigild\u2019s 406"]