Key Figures in Medieval Europe - An Encyclopedia

["important subjects, causing many to side with his chief PEDRO I THE CRUEL, KING OF CASTILE rival, his half-brother Enrique de Trast\u00e1mara, during the Castilian civil war of 1366\u20131369. The reign ended with the king\u2019s behavior. Outnumbered, Pedro gave violently with Pedro\u2019s death and the usurpation of the himself up to the rebels at Toro only to escape after a throne by Enrique. month to begin a slow but successful campaign against them. With the capitulation of Toledo in 1355 and Toro Coming to the throne 28 March 1350 shortly before in 1356, the main centers of antiroyal activity, Pedro his sixteenth birthday, Pedro spent the first two years succeeded in defeating the first serious challenge to under the influence of Juan Alfonso de Alburquerque, his authority. a Portuguese nobleman who had been in the service of Queen Mar\u00eda, and had become Pedro\u2019s first minister. Shortly after this victory, Pedro went to war against Under the auspices of Alburquerque, Pedro convened Arag\u00f3n, seeking redress over several territorial and dy- the Cortes of Valladolid in 1351, the only such meeting nastic grievances. Pedro IV was soon joined by Enrique for which we have any detailed records for the entire de Trast\u00e1mara, who had escaped from Castile before reign. Through a series of measures redacted during Pedro\u2019s victory at Toro, and other Castilians who had these proceedings, Pedro attempted to remedy some fled fearing the king\u2019s justice while Pedro counted on of the economic consequences of the plague such as the support of Pedro\u2019s hated half-brother Ferr\u00e1n. Pedro the abandonment of arable lands, and the steep rise experienced several successes at Tarazona (1357); Guar- in the cost of living. At the same time, the cuadernos damar (1359); Calatayud (1362); Teruel; Segorbe and de cortes (records of the courts) reveal Pedro\u2019s inter- Murviedo (1363); Alicante, Elche, Denia (1363), and est in a healthy royal treasury and an effective system Orihuela (1365); but he was never able to win a decisive of tax-collection. This concern with sound finances victory. Several truces and peace efforts mediated by remained a constant feature of his reign, and resulted papal legates did not succeed in bringing a lasting peace in the unpopular appointment of Samuel Halevi, a Jew, between the two kingdoms. as his chief treasurer and the extensive use of Jews as tax-farmers. These measures, for which Pedro was Meanwhile, from the conspiracy at Toro onward Pe- severely criticized, served as evidence to his detractors dro had turned increasingly against those he suspected of the king\u2019s presumed philojudaism, a quality almost of treason. He eliminated many of his former allies; as objectionable as his cruelty. several of his half-brothers, among them Fadrique; and his aunt Leonor and her son Juan, and he was believed From the early days of his reign, Pedro also had to responsible for the death of his wife Blanche in 1361. contend with an endemic feature of Castilian medieval politics, a restless and rebellious aristocracy. In his Pedro\u2019s policies, Enrique de Trast\u00e1mara\u2019s ambitions, particular case, the situation was aggravated by the Pedro\u2019s predicament, and even the politics of Navarre existence of a rival group of wealthy and influential all contributed to the participation of the French in individuals composed of the bastard children of Alfonso peninsular affairs, beginning in 1360. The French crown XI and his mistress Leonor de Guzm\u00e1n, their allies, agreed to sponsor Enrique\u2019s ambitions by commission- and retainers who challenged Pedro\u2019s authority almost ing Bertrand du Guesclin and an army of mercenaries from the beginning of the reign. Pedro reacted to these to fight in Castile. When they entered the kingdom in challenges in an increasingly suspicious and retaliatory 1366, Pedro was forced to flee in search of outside help, manner. which he finally secured from Edward the Black Prince in Bordeaux. The ensuing battle at N\u00e1jera on 13 April In 1353 Pedro married the French princess Blanche 1367 was a resounding, albeit shortlived, victory for de Bourbon and abandoned her two days after the Pedro. His alliance with the English collapsed when the wedding. It is likely that Blanche\u2019s sponsor, the French Castilian would not meet the terms of their agreement crown, was not able to fulfill the financial obligations and, as the Black Prince\u2019s troops withdrew from the of the marriage contract, and that Pedro left her for that peninsula, Enrique and Guesclin returned in 1368 and reason. The more popular yet unverifiable reason given received the support of several important regions. to explain the king\u2019s actions states that he abandoned Blanche because he could not bear to be away from the Pedro determined to meet his enemy in the vicinity woman he loved, Mar\u00eda de Padilla, whom he had met of Toledo. At the Battle of Montiel on 14 March 1369 in 1352. Enrique and the French soundly defeated Pedro\u2019s scat- tered army. Pedro, who had fled to a nearby fortress, Whatever his motives, Pedro\u2019s refusal to cohabit with tried to buy his freedom from Guesclin. Some days Blanche served to alienate his mother and Alburquerque, later, believing that the French captain had accepted his the principal architects of the marriage contract with the terms, Pedro went to Guesclin\u2019s tent where, within a few French, and gave his half-brothers a pretext for rebellion. minutes, Enrique arrived. He killed Pedro with a dagger, As the minister and the bastards became allies, they after a short struggle on 23 March 1369. Through this were joined by other prominent Castilians displeased fratricide Enrique became uncontested king of Castile, a title he began to use when he first entered the kingdom alongside the French in 1366. 507","PEDRO I THE CRUEL, KING OF CASTILE Murcian Crusade in 1265\u20131266, replaced his father at home during Jaime\u2019s abortive Holy Land Crusade In addition to his marriage to Blanche de Bourbon, in 1269 (and intervened in the Urgell wars of 1268), Pedro is said to have married Mar\u00eda de Padilla\u2014at least and prepared an invasion army to seize Toulouse in he claimed this following her death in 1361 in order to 1271. Relations with his father deteriorated in 1272, declare their four children (three daughters and a son, the with Pedro stripped of all offices and revenues; recon- youngest) legitimate heirs to the throne. Shortly after his ciliation came the following year. When the northern marriage to Blanche, he had also wed Juana de Castro, Catalan nobles revolted, Pedro captured and drowned but this marriage was just as ephemeral as his first and their leader, his bastard brother Ferran Sanxis. During a left no children. Eventually Pedro\u2019s line returned to the diplomatic visit to Paris, he met Philippe the Bold. His Castilian throne when his granddaughter, Catherine of greatest test came in 1275\u20131277, when the Mud\u00e9jars of Lancaster, daughter of John of Gaunt and Pedro and Valencia with Maghribian support revolted and nearly Mar\u00eda\u2019s second daughter Constanza, married the future recovered their land. Pedro had one thousand horsemen Enrique III of Castile. and five thousand foot soldiers at first, but soon had to assume the entire responsibility when his father died on See also Padilla, Mar\u00eda de the field (27 July 1276). Burying Jaime provisionally at Valencia and deferring his coronation at Zaragoza to 17 Further Reading November, Pedro grimly set about conquering much of Valencia \u201ca second time,\u201d as the contemporary mem- D\u00edaz Mart\u00edn, L. V. Itinerario de Pedro I de Castilla. Valladolid, oirist Ram\u00f3n Muntaner puts it. Meanwhile his brother 1975. Jaume II of Mallorca received the Balearics, Cerdanya, Montpellier, and Roussillon. L\u00f3pez de Ayala, P. Cr\u00f3nica del rey don Pedro. Biblioteca de Autores Espa\u00f1oles, vol. 66. Madrid, 1953. With the Mud\u00e9jar headquarters at Montesa castle fallen (September 1277), Pedro began a vigorous Sitges, J. B. Las mujeres del rey Don Pedro I de Castilla. Ma- domestic and international program. He demanded drid, 1910. tribute from Tunis, harrying it through his admiral Conrad Llanca, pressured Jaime II of Mallorca into Clara Estow accepting vassalage, and moved strongly against the still-rebellious northern barons, ending their six-year PEDRO III, KING OF ARAG\u00d3N war by his siege of Balaguer (1281) and winning their (1240\u20131285) support by his clemency. By holding as \u201cguest hostages\u201d the Infantes de la Cerda, he dominated the Castilian Pedro III the Great, Pere III of Arag\u00f3n, Pere II of succession crisis. His negotiations with Philippe the Catalonia, Pere I of Valencia, and Pere I of Sicily, \u201cwas Bold at Toulouse in 1281, and his treaties of Campillo the troubadour-warrior ruler of the realms of Arag\u00f3n and \u00c1greda with Alfonso X and the Infante Sancho of (1276\u20131285) and liberator-conqueror of Sicily. He was Castile that year, stabilized his peninsular situation. He born at Valencia, two years after that Islamic city fell to established understandings with Byzantium, England, his father Jaime the Conqueror, of Jaime\u2019s second wife Genoa, Granada, Portugal, and the papacy, and was Violante of Hungary. Jaime named him heir to Catalonia finally ready for his life\u2019s coup: to foil the Angevin in 1253, procurator or vice-regent there at seventeen in power that had absorbed Occitania and taken over 1257, and\u2014at the death of Jaime\u2019s son Alfonso by his Sicily-Naples, and to assume the Hohenstaufens\u2019 Sicil- first wife in 1260\u2014procurator of the Catalonia, Arag\u00f3n, ian kingdom and Ghibelline leadership in the western and Valencia realms. (Pedro\u2019s brother Jaime became Mediterranean. procurator of the Balearics, Roussillon, and Cerdanya.) In 1262 Pedro married Constance, the daughter and heir- Massing his naval and military strength, he simulated ess of Manfred, the Hohenstaufen ruler of Sicily-Naples. a crusade against Tunis, actually taking Collo there; the Besides four sons and two daughters by his mistresses pope refused crusade title or aid. Previously in contact Mar\u00eda and Agn\u00e9s Zapata, he had four sons (Including with the Sicilians, Pedro now supported the Sicilian his successors Alfonso II and Jaime II, and Frederico Vespers revolt of 30 March 1282. He moved eight III of Sicily), and two daughters (Queen Vio lante of hundred knights and fifteen thousand foot soldiers by Naples and Isabel Queen of Portugal). sea to Trapani, receiving the crown of Sicily-Naples at Palermo and starting a twenty-year war. A succession Although his formal reign lasted only nine years of naval victories by his admirals, especially Roger de versus his famous father\u2019s sixty-three, the Infante Pedro Ll\u00faria, established the Catalans as the dominant mari- enjoyed a fifteen-year public career as procuratorial time power of the western Mediterranean after Genoa. co-ruler and soldier before his coronation. He restored feudal order as a teenager, plunged into Mediterranean Ghibelline politics during negotiations for his marriage, championed Occitan refugees after such troubles as the 1263 Marseilles revolt, captained the first phase of the 508","Besides Sicily and much of the Italian mainland, Pedro PEGOLOTTI, FRANCESCO DI BALDUCCIO also took Malta and Tunisian Djerba island. PEGOLOTTI, FRANCESCO DI Meanwhile Pope Martin IV, feudal lord of Sicily BALDUCCIO (born c. 1280s) and proponent of its Angevin king Charles of Anjou, excommunicated Pedro in November 1282, deposed Francesco di Balduccio Pegolotti was a Florentine factor him in March 1283, and transferred all his realms to the for the great Bardi banking house in the first half of the son of Philippe the Bold of France, Charles of Valois, in fourteenth century, until its failure in 1347. His name February 1284. The Catalans supported their king, but appears in 1310 in the firm\u2019s payroll for the branch in the Arag\u00f3nese had been ill-disposed toward the Sicilian Florence, at a rate which suggests that he already had adventure from the start. In that long and bloody war, considerable experience. His work was rewarded with one episode stands out\u2014the Challenge (desafiament) of promotions to positions of greater importance. In 1315, Bordeaux. Anjou offered to settle the war by personal he negotiated trade rights for Florentines in Antwerp. combat with Pedro, but instead arranged a trap for his From 1318 to 1321, as director of the firm\u2019s English arrival at English Bordeaux; Pedro still appeared, met office, he had duties that included financial transac- the challenge, and escaped, to the edification of Europe\u2019s tions to help finance the English king, private business, chivalric classes (1283). More formidably, a papal cru- and transferral of the tithes collected in England to the sade to set Valois during Pedro\u2019s reign saw an army of papal curia. Pegolotti next moved to Cyprus, where he 118,000 foot and 7,000 horse under Philippe the Bold remained until 1329; again, his job involved diplomacy, sweep into Catalonia. Pedro delayed this greatest army handling papal monies, and handling monies for indi- since ancient Rome at Girona until Ll\u00faia\u2019s fleet from vidual merchants. He returned to Florence in order to Sicily could arrive to destroy the French naval flank hold civic office but then moved back to the east by 1335. and logistics, ending the invasion (September 1285). In 1340, he returned again to Florence, for the last time. Pedro suppressed a plebeian revolt in Barcelona under The last known mention of him is in 1347, when he was Berenguer Oller that same year, negotiated a major one of the civic officials overseeing the liquidation of commercial treaty with Tunis, and mounted a punitive the assets of the bankrupt Bardi firm. amphibious expedition against his traitorous brother on Mallorca, but died on the road to join the fleet. Pegolotti is best known not for his service to the Bardi but for the compilation of his observations on The contemporary memoirist Bernat Desclot calls trade now known as La practica della mercatura. The Pedro \u201ca second Alexander\u201d for his generalship. Dante oldest known manuscript, from 1472, is a copy made lauds him as \u201cthe heavy-sinewed one [who] bore in by Filippo di Niccolaio Frescobaldi in the Riccardian his life the seal of every merit\u201d; and he appears both Library in Florence. The manuscript has evident inac- in Boccaccio\u2019s Decameron and Shakespeare\u2019s Much curacies, which can be attributed to the copyist; these Ado about Nothing. Pedro was a troubadour (two of include misreadings that arose when the copyist was his poems survive) and their patron. He presided over a trying to expand the original abbreviations, and chapters constitutional revolution (Arag\u00f3n\u2019s Privilege of Union, that are out of place. Internal evidence, such as the men- Catalonia\u2019s Recognoverunt proceres annual parliament) tion of current kings, helps to show that the material in in 1283\u20131284. He stabilized coinage with his silver the Practica was collected throughout Pegolotti\u2019s career croat, and maritime law with his restructured Llibre with the Bardi, and also that it was not written down del Consolat (1283). He protected Jews and gave them all at one time. important posts in his administration. As a politician and diplomat he is thought superior to his great father, and The Practica is one of a \u201cgenre\u201d of documents called he presided over a commercial, literary, and architectural merchant manuals. It is by far the best-known because flowering in Catalonia. historians have used Pegolotti\u2019s discussion of the route to Cathay as proof that Europeans had knowledge of See also Jaime II; Philip III the Bold and easy access to the Silk Road. The data come from Pegolotti\u2019s experience and from documents he col- Further Reading lected that had something to do with his work\u2014such as a list of brokerage fees charged in Pisa, quoted from Soldevila, F. Pere el Gran. 2 parts in 4 vols. Institut d\u2019Estudis the Breve dell\u2019 Ordine del Mare of 1323. The section Catalans, Mem\u00f2ries de la Secci\u00f3 Hist\u00f3rico-arqueol\u00f2gica. Vols. on Cathay is almost certainly based on information 11, 13, 16, 22. Barcelona, 1950\u20131962. Pegolotti collected rather than on personal experience. The manual contains information on conversions for \u2014\u2014\u2014. Vida de Pere el Gran i d\u2019Alfons el Liberal. Barcelona, weights, measures, and currencies between various 1963. XI Congres de Hist\u00f2ria de la Corona d\u2019Arag\u00f3. 3 vols. places, as well as discussions of other topics such as Palermo, 1983\u201384. the steps involved in producing the most important commodities of a particular region and the expenses Robert I. Burns, S. J. involved in producing coins. The Practica is among the 509","PEGOLOTTI, FRANCESCO DI BALDUCCIO everyone mad except one man who has been sheltered; when he goes out into the street, he sees that everyone earliest known merchant manuals, but it is possible that else is crazy, but they think him mad and drive him away. Pegolotti borrowed some of his material from still earlier Thus, worldly spirits reject the man who hears the voice manuals, just as later manuals would borrow from his. of God. In a few poems, Peire criticizes the worldly love This type of book probably functioned as an exemplar sung by other troubadours and anticipates the dolce stil to teach apprentices how international trade worked, not nuovo with his claim that fin\u2019amors is born in a franc as a reference for absolute values or information. cor gentil, \u201ca noble, gentle heart.\u201d Further Reading During the extended period of the Albigensian Crusade (1209\u201329), Peire expressed vigorous anti- Borlandi, Antonia, ed. Il manuale di mercatura di Saminiato de\u2019 clericalism at the expense of Dominican inquisitors Ricci. Genoa: Di Stefano, 1963. and severely criticized the French army led by Simon de Montfort. He did not, however, defend the cause of Borlandi, Franco, ed. El libro di mercatantie et usanze de\u2019 paesi. the Albigensians, regarded as heretics by the church, but Turin: S. Lattes, 1936. rather championed the political cause of the counts of Toulouse, whose lands were invaded by the crusaders. Cessi, Roberto, and Antonio Orlandini, eds. Tarifa zo\u00e8 noticia In his religious poems, he expresses an orthodox belief dy pexi e mesure di luoghi e tere che s\u2019adovra mercadantia in Catholic doctrine. per el mondo. Venice, 1925. See also Marcabru; Simon de Montfort, Ciano, Cesare, ed. La pratica di mercatura datiniana. Milan: Earl of Leicester Giuffr\u00e8, 1964. Further Reading Dotson, John, trans. and ed. Merchant Culture in Fourteenth- Century Venice: The Zibaldone da Canal. Binghamton, N.Y.: Peire Cardenal. Po\u00e9sies compl\u00e8tes du troubadour Peire Cardenal, Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 1994. ed. Ren\u00e9 Lavaud. Toulouse: Privat, 1957. Pagnini del Ventura, Giovanni Francesco. Della decima e di varie Marshall, John Henry. \u201cImitation of Metrical Form in Peire altre gravezze imposte dal comune di Firenze: Della moneta Cardenal.\u201d Romance Philology 32 (1978): 18\u201348. e della mercatura de\u2019 fiorentini fino al secolo XVI, Vol. 3, La pratica della mercatura (by Balducci Pegolotti); Vol. 4, La Riquer, Mart\u00edn de, ed. Los trovadores: historia literaria y textos. pratica della mercatura (by Giovanni di Antonio da Uzzano). 3 vols. Barcelona: Planeta, 1975, Vol. 3, pp. 1478\u2013518. Lisbon, 1765\u20131766. (Reprint, Bologna: Forni, 1967.) Wilhelm, James J. Seven Troubadours: The Creators of Modern Pegolotti, Francesco Balducci. La pratica della mercatura, Verse. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, ed. Allen Evans. Cambridge, Mass.: Medieval Academy of 1970, pp.173\u201395. America, 1936. William D. Paden Stussi, Alfredo, ed. Zibaldone da Canal: Manoscritto mercantile del sec. XIV. Venice: Comitato per la Pubblicazione delle Fonti PE\u00d1AFORT, RAM\u00d3N DE Relative alla Storia di Venezia, 1967. (c. 1180\u20131275) Eleanor A. Congdon Ram\u00f3n de Pe\u00f1afort was the greatest canon lawyer of his century, third master general of the Dominicans, and PEIRE CARDENAL architect of the century\u2019s novel program for proselytiz- (ca. 1180\u2013ca. 1272) ing Muslims and Jews. Born at his father\u2019s castle or seignorial residence of Pe\u00f1afort at Santa Margarida del One of the most prolific troubadours and the longest- Penedes, Ram\u00f3n presumably received his arts education lived, Peire Cardenal composed sirventes, or satires, on at the cathedral of Barcelona, where he became a cleric moral and religious subjects. He left some ninety-six and scriptor in 1204. A decade later he undertook legal poems. Born in Le Puy, he was employed as a clerk by studies at the University of Bologna and subsequently Raymond VI of Toulouse and frequented the courts of taught there. By 1223 he was back at Barcelona Ca- Les Baux, Rodez, Auvergne, and (according to his vida) thedral as provost canon of its chapter. He soon left of Aragon. He may have died in Montpellier. all to become a Dominican mendicant, presumably at Barcelona\u2019s Santa Caterina priory. He is thought to have As a satirist, Peire is distant from Marcabru but closer assisted Cardinal Jean d\u2019Abbeville, the papal legate, in to Bertran de Born, whom he imitated in a number of his travels across Spain beginning in 1228 to reinforce compositions, sometimes equaling the sting of Bertran\u2019s the reforms of the Fourth Lateran Council; he was invective, on other occasions echoing his technique of certainly at Zaragoza in 1229 to decide the annulment martial description the better to express his disapproval of the marriage between Jaime I and Leonor of Castile. of Bertran\u2019s eagerness for combat. Peire imitated the In 1230 he was called to Rome as papal chaplain and metrical and musical form of preceding compositions in at least 80 percent of his own songs, exploring the pos- sibilities of an increasingly strict sense of contrafacture with impressive technical inventiveness. As a moralist, Peire praises good actions and blames the bad but laments that he is understood by no one, as though he spoke a foreign language. He tells a fable, Una ciutatz fo, in which rain falls on a city and drives 510","confessor. Pope Gregory IX commissioned him there PEPIN to construct the Decretals, promulgated in 1234; with Gratian\u2019s Decretum, this systematization of a century\u2019s start of his career at Bologna to his last year of life in laws in some two thousand sections remained the code Barcelona. The writings circulated throughout Europe of the church until the twentieth century. Ram\u00f3n then and had immense influence. The most important were his refused the metropolitanate of Tarragona, and in 1236 Summa iuris canonici, written at Bologna; his Summa returned to the Barcelona priory. Continuously involved de casibus poenitentiae (or Summa de confessoribus), in important canonical cases there, he was active at the written in 1222\u20131225 but redone in 1234\u20131236; his parliament (corts) of Monz\u00f3n in 1236, was delegated Decretales, written between 1230 and 1234; and the Do- to lift the papal excommunication from Jaime I (whose minican constitutions. Some sermons and letters, as well friend and counselor he was), and became involved as legal responses (dubitalia) survive. The Decretales in the dismissal of Tortosa\u2019s bishop and the provision had as great an influence on national codes, like Alfonso of Huesca\u2019s and Mallorca\u2019s bishops. The Dominican el Sabio\u2019s Siete Partidas, as his confessors\u2019 handbook chapter general elected him head of the order in 1238. had on the ethical and behavioral life of Christendom. He left a lasting mark especially by his revision of their Though a Tarragona Council presented a special report constitutions and his integration of the order\u2019s nuns and petition for his canonization in 1279, that honor before suddenly resigning in 1240. came only in 1601. Returning to Santa Caterina priory, he spent the next See also Gratian; Jaime (Jaume) I of thirty-five years there on massive missionary projects Arag\u00f3n-Catalonia; Mart\u00ed, Ram\u00f3n and in most of the Crown of Arag\u00f3n\u2019s religious crises. He was active against heresy, persuading King Jaime Further Reading to allow the Inquisition; he was regularly counselor to the king; and he adjudicated important public quarrels. Burns, R. I. \u201cChristian-Islamic Confrontation in the West: The Ram\u00f3n\u2019s main preoccupation was with the founding of Thirteenth-Century Drearn of Conversion.\u201d Amer can Histori- language schools for intrusive missionary disputation cal Review 76 (1971), 1386\u20131434. with Muslims and Jews, and with devising a program of persuasive confrontation and handbooks of polemi- Rius Serra, J. San Raimundo de Pe\u00f1afort: diplomatario. Bar- cal argumentation. He opened an Arabic language and celona, 1954. disputation center at Tunis in 1245 and at Murcia in 1266. He persuaded Thomas Aquinas to construct his Robert I. Burns, S. J. masterwork, Contra gentiles, for these missions. PEPIN Through the school centers, compulsory sermons in mosques and synagogues, the public disputation of Frankish leaders of the Carolingian family. Among 1263 in Barcelona, censorship of rabbinic books, and Charlemagne\u2019s ancestors, three named Pepin were the aggressive labors of Dominicans like Pau Cristi\u00e0 especially distinguished by their political authority and Ramon Mart\u00ed, Ram\u00f3n helped turn Mediterranean among the Franks. Pepin I of Landen (Pepin the Old or Spain into a stormy laboratory for the new rationalist- the Elder; d. ca. 640) founded the family of the Arnulf- confrontational missionary methods. This was part of ings or the Pippinids, later known as the Carolingians, the wider mendicant effort to convert India, China, and through the arranged marriage of his daughter, Begga, Islamic countries by polemical dialogue. Jeremy Cohen to Ansegisel, the son of Arnulf of Metz (d. ca. 645). argues for an even more revolutionary orientation in Pepin was named mayor of the palace (major domus) of Ram\u00f3n\u2019s vision: a conviction that Talmudic Judaism Austrasia by the Merovingian king Clotar II of Neustria was antibiblical, depriving Jews of their right by Chris- (r. 584\u2013629), for having assisted the monarch to unite tian teaching to practice their faith in Christian lands. the kingdoms of Austrasia and Neustria. During his Contemporary hagiographers stress instead Ram\u00f3n\u2019s mayoralty, the office grew into the most powerful posi- mission to the Muslims of Spain, and he himself reported tion in the Frankish territories, equaling or surpassing euphorically on the successful conversion of many. The the royal throne in importance. roots of these movements, and the inevitability of their ultimate failure, have been more recently discussed After the murder of Pepin\u2019s son and successor, Gri- by authors such as Robert Burns, Jeremy Cohen, and moald in 656, the Pippinids lost control of the Austras- Dominique Urvoy. ian mayoralty; but in 687, Pepin II of Heristal, duke of Austrasia and Grimoald\u2019s nephew, led the Austrasian Throughout all his activity in public life, mission- army to victory over the Neustrians and became mayor ary disputation, or Dominican administration, Ram\u00f3n of the palace in both regions. From this post, he gradu- remained a scholar on the cutting edge of Roman and ally strengthened his authority over all the Merovingian canon law. His legal publications multiplied from the kingdoms, through his support of the church, manipula- tion of ecclesiastical posts, and military campaigns. Pepin III (the Short; d. 768) and Carloman I (d. 754), grandsons of Pepin II, each inherited half the Frankish 511","PEPIN the Franks whom they supposedly served. From 741 to 747 Pepin III and Carloman acted jointly to withstand territories on the death in 741 of their father, Charles threats to their position, especially from the dukes of Martel, mayor in the united realm. The two brothers Bavaria, Aquitaine, and Alemannia who were seeking to cooperated closely in governing their lands; in 743, escape Frankish overlordship. They strengthened their they together placed another Merovingian, Childeric III, ties with the church by supporting the missionary and on the royal throne, empty since 737. In 747, however, reforming efforts of the Anglo-Saxon monk Boniface, Carloman felt called to a religious life and abdicated; acting in Francia under papal auspices. Pepin became mayor of the entire kingdom. Having deposed Childeric, a move supported by Pope Zachary In 747 Carloman withdrew from his office to become I, Pepin was acclaimed king in November 751. During a a monk. Pepin assumed sole power and soon decided visit to Francia in 754, Pope Stephen II anointed the new to assume the royal office. To legitimatize this bold monarch along with his wife and sons, Charles (later act against the claims of the Merovingian dynasty, he Charlemagne; 742\u2013814) and Carloman II (d. 771). In sought and received the approval of Pope Zacharias I recognition of the hope that the new monarchy would (r. 741\u2013752). In 751 Pepin deposed the last Merovin- protect the Roman church, the pope used the occasion to gian king and had himself elected king by the Frankish name Pepin and his sons \u201cpatricians of the Romans.\u201d magnates and anointed by a bishop, an innovation in Frankish history that gave a sacramental character to As ruler of the Franks, Pepin III oversaw reform of the royal office. the secular government and, with the aid of the Irish missionary Boniface, of the ecclesiastical organization. Pepin\u2019s accession to the royal office soon led to his His efforts in the latter regard, especially, provided involvement in Italian affairs. By the mid-eighth century the foundation for the cultural and intellectual revival a crisis had developed in Italy as a result of the decline known as the Carolingian renaissance, under Pepin\u2019s of Byzantine power. The papacy, which had established son Charlemagne. control over the territory around Rome, was challenged by the Lombards, who in 751 seized Byzantine ter- See also Charlemagne; Charles Martel; ritories around Ravenna (called the Exarchate) and Pepin III the Short threatened Rome. Pope Stephen II (r. 752\u2013757) turned to Pepin for protection and in late 753 traveled to Fran- Further Reading cia to negotiate with him. The result was a promise by Pepin to protect the pope and his Roman subjects and Hlawitschka, Eduard. \u201cDie Vorfahren Karls des Grossen.\u201d In Karl to restore to the papacy territories that Stephen claimed der Grosse: Lebenswerk und Nachleben, ed. W. Braunfels et the Lombard had illegally seized. In return, Stephen al. 5 vols. Dusseldorf: Schwann, 1965, Vol. 1, pp. 51\u201382. reanointed Pepin and his sons and invested them with the title patricius Romanorum, which implied a role as McKitterick, Rosamond. The Frankish Kingdoms Under the protector of the Romans. Pepin made good his promise Carolingians, 751\u2013987. London: Longman, 1983. by conducting successful military campaigns against the Lombards in 755 and 756. He forced the Lombards to Miller, David Harry. \u201cSacral Kingship, Biblical Kingship, and surrender to the papacy considerable territories legally the Elevation of Pepin the Short.\u201d In Religion, Culture, and belonging to the Byzantine empire. This \u201cDonation of Society in the Early Middle Ages: Studies in Honor of Richard Pepin,\u201d coupled with the territory around Rome that E. Sullivan, ed. Thomas F.X. Noble and John J. Contreni. the papacy already controlled, formed the basis of an Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute, 1987. independent papal state stretching across the Italian peninsula from Rome to Ravenna. During the remainder Noble, Thomas F.X. The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the of his reign Pepin honored his role as protector of the Papal State, 680\u2013825. Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl- papacy and the \u201crepublic of Rome\u201d by using diplomatic vania Press, 1984. means to restrain the Lombards. Rich\u00e9, Pierre. The Carolingians: A Family Who Forged Europe, As king of the Franks, Pepin was mainly concerned trans. Michael I. Allen. Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl- with solidifying and expanding the power and prestige vania Press, 1993. of the royal office. He effectively used force to increase the Franks\u2019 control over Bavaria and Aquitaine and to Celia Chazelle ward off attacks by the pagan Saxons. He took the lead in promoting reform of the church, a role that gave sub- PEPIN III THE SHORT stance to his claim to rule as an agent of God promoting (714\u2013768), the true faith. The expanding influence of the Franks in Italy and southern Gaul led to diplomatic exchanges Pepin III, called \u201cthe Short\u201d by later historians, played with the Byzantine empire and the Abbasid caliphs a key role in establishing the Carolingian family as the predominant force in the west. In 741 Pepin and his brother Carloman succeeded their father, Charles Martel, as joint holders of the office of mayor of the palace, an office that had been successfully exploited by Charles Martel (in 714\u2013741) and his father, Pepin II of Herstal (in 687\u2013714), to the point where they exercised real power at the expense of the Merovingian kings of 512","of the Muslim world. By the end of his reign, the first P\u00c9ROTIN Carolingian king of the Franks had expanded the posi- tion of his people to the status of a major power. influenced the course of Western music. The music theorists Johannes de Garlandia and Anonymous 4 See also Charles Martel; Stephen II, Pope mention \u201cMagister P\u00e9rotinus,\u201d but only the latter lists seven of his musical compositions and chronologically Further Reading places him as \u201cthe best discantor\u201d among other singers, composers, and notators working in Paris from the late Editions and Translations 12th to late 13th century. Anonymous 4 credits P\u00e9rotin with the polyphony found today at the beginning of each Capitularia regum Francorum, ed. Alfred Boretius and Victor of the three major extant Notre-Dame sources (W1, F, Krause. Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Leges, 2(1\u20132). and W2): the Graduals Viderunt omnes and Sederunt Hannover: Hansche Buchhandlung, 1883\u20131897, Vol. 1, pp. principes, both for four voices, and adds to the list 24\u201343. three-part polyphony for the Alleluia Posui adiutorium and Alleluia Narivitas, and three conductus, the three- Carolingian Chronicles: Royal Frankish Annals and Nithard\u2019s part Salvatoris hodie, the two-part Dum sigillum, and Histories, trans. Bernhard Walter Scholz with Barbara Rogers. the monophonic Beam viscera. On the basis of stylistic Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970, pp. 37\u201347. affinity with these works, several other works in the Notre-Dame sources have been credited to him. Anony- Codex Carolinus, ed. Wilhelm Gundlach: Monumenta Germaniae mous 4\u2019s statement that P\u00e9rotin made many clausulae Historica, Epistolae Merowingici et Karolini, 1. Berlin: Wei- and edited, revised, or shortened L\u00e9onin\u2019s Magnus liber demann, 1892, pp. 469\u2013558, 649\u2013653. organi has led many to attribute to him one or more of the series of independent discant clausulae that survive Concilia aevi karolini, ed. Albert Werminghoff. Monumenta in W1 and F. Germaniae Historica, Concilia, 2(1\u20132). Hannover and Leipzig: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 1896\u20131898, pp. 1\u201373. Petrus, succentor (subcantor) of the cathedral ca. 1207\u201338, has been proposed as the most probable iden- The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar; with its Continua- tity for Anonymous 4\u2019s \u201cP\u00e9rotinus optimus discantor,\u201d tion, trans. J. M. Wallace-Hadrill. Medieval Classics. London partly because responsibility for the daily services and New York: Nelson, 1960, pp. 96\u2013122. (Latin text with at the cathedral would have fallen to the succentor English translation.) rather than the cantor, whose post had become largely administrative. Petrus\u2019 dates seem to correlate with Die Urkunden der Karolinger, Vol. 1, Die Urkunden Pippins, Kar- Anonymous 4\u2019s description of L\u00e9onin\u2019s Magnus liber lomanns und Karls des Grossen, ed. Engelbert M\u00fchlbacher. organi, which he stated was in use until the time of Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Diplomatum Karolinorum, P\u00e9rotin, while P\u00e9rotin\u2019s \u201cbook or books\u201d were used in 1. Hannover: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 1906, pp. 1\u201360. the cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris up to Anonymous 4\u2019s own time, probably the 1280s. Hans Tischler and Critical Studies others have maintained, however, that P\u00e9rotin lived ca. 1155\/60\u20131200\/05, largely on the basis that ordinances Affeldt, Werner. \u201cUntersuchungen zur K\u00f6nigshebung Pippins.\u201d issued in 1198 and 1199 by Odo de Sully, bishop of Fr\u00fchmittelalterliche Studien, 14, 1980, pp. 95\u2013187. Paris, sanctioned performance of three- and four-part organum at Notre-Dame during Christmas Week. That Hahn, Heinrich. Jahrb\u00fccher des fr\u00e4nkischen Reiches, 741\u2013752. P\u00e9rotin\u2019s composition of the four-part polyphony for Berlin: Duncker und Humblot, 1863. Viderunt omnes and Sederunt principes might have elic- ited these decrees can only be conjectured. The dating of Halphen, Louis. Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire, trans. P\u00e9rotin\u2019s polyphony is particularly important to a history Giselle de Nie. Europe in the Middle Ages, 3. Amsterdam: of the musical style of the period. If it dates generally North-Holland, 1977, pp. 3\u201339. before 1200, that would mean that the rhythmic modes and their notation as well as the discant clausula and Kempf, Friedrich, et al. Handbook of Church History, Vol. 3, The consequently the early motet were well advanced at the Church in the Age of Feudalism, ed. Hubert Jedin and John very beginning of the 13th century. Dolan, trans. Anselm Biggs. New York: Herder and Herder; London: Burns and Oates, 1969, pp. 3\u201325. See also L\u00e9onin; Philip the Chancellor Noble, Thomas F. X. The Republic of Saint Peter: The Birth of Further Reading the Papal State, 680\u2013825. The Middle Ages. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984, pp. 1\u2013122. P\u00e9rotin. Works, ed. Ethel Thurston. New York: Kalmus, 1970. Tischler, Hans. \u201cP\u00e9rotinus Revisited.\u201d In Aspects of Medieval Oelsner, Ludwig. Jahrb\u00fccher des fr\u00e4nkischen Reiches unter K\u00f6nig and Renaissance Music: A Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, Pippin. Leipzig: Duncker und Humblot, 1871. Rich\u00e9, Pierre. Les carolingiens: Une famille qui fit l\u2019Europe. Paris: Hachette, 1983, pp. 71\u2013103. Richard E. Sullivan P\u00c9ROTIN (P\u00e9rotinus; fl. late 12th\u2013early 13th c.) Because he composed liturgical vocal polyphony at Notre-Dame for two, three, and four parts (each part sung by a soloist) and employed the rhythmic modes, sophisticated devices of repetition and voice exchange, unprecedented length, and important notational innova- tions, P\u00e9rotin was the most significant musical figure of the early 13th century. His achievements profoundly 513","P\u00c9ROTIN apparently never taught at the abbey, Peter did preach there, and he maintained close ties with Saint-Victor ed. Jan LaRue. New York: Norton, 1966, pp. 803\u201317. throughout his life. Wright, Craig. Music and Ceremony at Notre Dame of Paris, The Lombard soon made himself a reputation as a 500 \u20131550. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, formidable theologian. By 1142\u201343, he had the dubious pp. 288\u201394. distinction of being named by Gerhoch of Reichersberg as a dangerous innovator; in 1148, he was summoned Sandra Pinegar by Pope Eugenius III to the Consistory of Reims to help judge the orthodoxy of another innovator, Gilbert of PETER COMESTOR (ca. 1000\u20131178) Poitiers, whose christology Peter found lacking. Teach- ing at Notre-Dame by 1143, he was a canon by 1145 Born in Troyes, Peter became in 1147 dean of the ca- and steadily rose in rank (subdeacon by 1147, deacon thedral there. Sometime before 1159, he went to Paris, by 1150, archdeacon by 1157). In 1158, his years of where he studied under Peter Lombard and later taught service were crowned by his election as bishop of Paris; theology. He became chancellor of the cathedral of this honor was short-lived, as he died in 1160. Notre-Dame between 1164 and 1168. He died in 1178 and was buried at the abbey of Saint-Victor. Although The earliest works of the Lombard are his commen- known primarily for the Historia scholastica, Peter taries on the Psalms (before 1138) and on the epistles wrote other works, including some 150 sermons, the of Paul (by 1142). Though Herbert of Bosham reports Summa de sacramentis (based on Peter Lombard\u2019s that Peter meant them for his personal edification only Sententiae), some quaestiones, and commentaries on the and that he never finished them, they were swiftly and Gospels, as well as glosses on the Glossa ordinaria, on widely circulated, often even replacing the marginal- the Magna glossatura of Peter Lombard, and perhaps on interlinear glosses for the Psalms and epistles in the Lombard\u2019s Sententiae. The Historia scholastica, used Glossa ordinaria. Known as the Magna glossatura, in the schools and later in the university curriculum, they became the most frequently cited works of Scrip- was a narrative presentation of biblical history from ture exegesis in the Middle Ages. Peter based his two Creation through the life of Jesus. Peter here sought to commentaries on a close reading of Anselm of Laon\u2019s counteract what he saw as the destruction of the con- glosses and Gilbert of Poitiers\u2019s biblical commentaries. nected literal-historical sense of the text through the He kept the Glossa\u2019s patristic and Carolingian base, took practice of a spiritual exegesis that tended to divide the over Gilbert\u2019s organization scheme and hermeneutic text into brief \u201cfragments\u201d for symbolic interpretation. principles, and consistently worked out doctrinal posi- Peter not only drew upon traditional patristic authors tions and current theological issues in connection with for the historical sense; he also used Josephus\u2019s Jewish the scriptural text. Antiquities and the commentaries on the Octateuch by Andrew of Saint-Victor. In a practical way, Peter con- Even more central to the history of medieval theol- tinued the emphasis on reading Scripture according to ogy and philosophy is the Lombard\u2019s Quattuor libri the literal-historical sense that had been established at sententiarum, or the Sententiae. Sentence collections the abbey of Saint-Victor by Hugh of Saint-Victor. proliferated in the 12th century, as theologians strove to systematize and professionalize their field. Peter See also Andrew of Saint Victor; Lombard\u2019s Sententiae (1155\u201357) became an instant and Hugh of Saint-Victor; Peter Lombard enduring success throughout Europe (legislated into the theological curriculum of the University of Paris Further Reading in 1215) and remained without serious competition until replaced by the Summa of Thomas Aquinas in the Peter Comestor. Historia scholastica; Sermons. PL 198.1045\u2013 16th century. It was second only to the Bible in impor- 844. tance in theological training; hundreds of theologians wrote commentaries on the Sententiae. The reasons \u2014\u2014. Summa de sacramentis, ed. Raymond M. Martin. In for its success have recently been set forth in a effort Ma\u00eetre Simon et son groupe: De sacramentis, ed. Heinrich to restore the luster to the Lombard\u2019s tired reputation. Weisweiler. Louvain: \u201cSpicilegium Sacrum Lovaniense,\u201d Its comprehensive coverage of topics, logical order, 1937, appendix. lack of dependence on or promotion of any elaborate philosophical system, sensitivity to the need for clarity Smalley, Beryl. The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages. 3rd and consistency in theological language, and readiness ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 1983. to address controversial issues while acknowledging contemporary consensus, all ensured the utility of the Grover A. Zinn Sententiae to generations of theologians and philoso- phers. In addition, Peter\u2019s christology avoided many of PETER LOMBARD (ca. 1100\u20131160) The \u201cMaster of the Sentences\u201d born and educated in Novara, Lombardy, arrived in Paris via Reims (ca. 1135) with a letter of recommendation from Bernard of Clairvaux to Abbot Gilduin of Saint-Victor. While he 514","the semantic pitfalls that plagued contemporary theo- PETER OF POITIERS logians; his Trinitarian views were solemnly ratified at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. Peter\u2019s Sententiarum libri quinque (probably before 1170) is modeled directly on the dialectical method as See also Anselm of Laon; Aquinas, Thomas; used by Peter Lombard in his Quattuor libri sententia- Bernard of Clairvaux rum and also draws upon its content. Peter\u2019s work is not, however, a commentary on the Lombard\u2019s but is his own Further Reading formulation of a \u201ccompendium of theology\u201d to instruct those who are beginning the study of Scripture. Peter\u2019s Peter Lombard. Commentariu sin psalmos davidicos. PL faithfulness to the Lombard\u2019s thought earned him the 191.55\u2013169. distinction of being included with the Lombard, Gilbert of Poitiers, and Abelard as one of the \u201cfour labyrinths \u2014\u2014. Collectanea in omnes b. Pauli epistolas. PL 191.1297\u2013696 of France\u201d in Walter of Saint-Victor\u2019s antidialectical and PL 192.9\u2013520. polemic. \u2014\u2014. Sententiae in IV libris distinctae, ed. Ignatius Brady. Three of Peter\u2019s works on scriptural interpretation 3rd ed. rev. In Spicilegium Bonaventurianum. Grottafer- deserve mention. Allegoriae super tabernaculum Moysis rata: Editiones Collegii S. Bonaventurae ad Claras Aquas, explicates the four senses of scriptural interpretation 1971\u201381,Vols. 4\u20135. (history, allegory, tropology, and anagogy) and presents a detailed allegorical interpretation of the materials, \u2014\u2014. Sermons (printed under the name of Hildebert of Lavar- construction, associated objects, and other aspects of din). PL 171.339\u2013964. [See list in J. de Ghellinck, \u201cPierre the Tabernacle of Moses. Compendium historiae in Lombard.\u201d In Dictionnarie de th\u00e9ologie catholique. Vol. 12 genealogia Christi is a work of historical explication in (1935), cols. 1961\u201362.] Bertola, Ermenegildo. \u201cPietro Lom- service of biblical exegesis. By means of a grand genea- bardo nella storiografia filosofica medioevale.\u201d Pier Lombardo logical schematic, with accompanying text, extending 4 (1960): 95\u2013113. from Adam and Eve to Jesus Christ, Peter sketched out the essentials of biblical history for beginning students. Colish, Marcia L. Peter Lombard. Leiden: Brill, 1993. Tradition held that he was the first to draw genealogical \u2014\u2014. \u201cSystematic Theology and Theological Renewal in the \u201ctrees\u201d on animal skins and hang them on classroom walls in order to instruct students. Finally, Distinctiones Twelfth Century.\u201d Journal of Medieval and Renaissance super psalterium is part of a move within the schools Studies 18 (1988): 135\u201356. to make resources for biblically based preaching more \u2014\u2014. \u201cFrom sacra pagina to theologia: Peter Lombard as accessible to students and preachers. The Distinctiones an Exegete of Romans.\u201d Medieval Perspectives 7 (1991): takes a word from a psalm and gives a set of meanings, 1\u201319. the distinctio, all supported by references to other pas- \u2014\u2014. \u201cPsalterium Scholasticorum: Peter Lombard and the sages of Scripture. Thus, the reader had ready at hand a Emergence of Scholastic Psalms Exegesis.\u201d Speculum 67 compendium of many symbolic interpretations of such (1992): 531\u201348. words as \u201cbed,\u201d \u201cfire,\u201d or \u201cstone.\u201d Some manuscripts Delhaye, Philippe. Pierre Lombard: sa vie, ses \u00e6uvres, sa morale. present the work as a continuous prose text; others have Montreal: Institut d\u2019\u00c9tudes Medievales, 1961. a schematic structure, with the \u201ckey word\u201d in the margin and a series of red lines connecting with the meanings. Theresa Gross-Diaz Such a handbook would be of great use to preachers searching for allegories, and Peter\u2019s book is similar in PETER OF POITIERS (d. 1205) its intent to Peter the Chanter\u2019s Summa Abel and Prae- positinus of Cremona\u2019s Summa super psalterium. Master in theology at Paris from ca. 1167, successor (1169) to the chair in theology held by Peter Comestor, See also Hugh of Saint-Victor; Peter Comestor; and chancellor of the schools of Paris from 1193. Peter Peter Lombard of Poitiers (to be distinguished from another contem- porary Peter of Poitiers, a regular canon of the abbey Further Reading of Saint-Victor at Paris) was a leading figure in the Parisian schools in the last third of the 12th century. A Moore, Philip S. The Works of Peter of Poitiers, Master in The- student under Peter Lombard and a strong supporter of ology and Chancellor of Paris (1193\u20131205). Notre Dame: the Lombard\u2019s theology when it came under attack in University of Notre Dame Press. 1936. the last decades of the 12th century, Peter of Poitiers was a determined advocate of the usefulness of dialectics \u2014\u2014 and James Corbett, eds. Petri Pictaviensis Allegoriae su- in theology. per tabernaculum Moysis. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1938. He was also influenced by the Victorine tradition, represented by Hugh and Richard of Saint-Victor, Peter \u2014\u2014 and Mathe Dulong, eds. Pern Pictaviensis Sententiarum Comestor, and Peter the Chanter, that emphasized both libri quinque. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, historical study and the importance of biblical allegory. 1943, Vol. 1. Four of Peter\u2019s works reveal these influences and also Peter\u2019s distinctive contributions to theological, histori- cal, and exegetical-homiletic studies in the schools of Paris. 515","PETER OF POITIERS was recognized as a preacher, no sermons have survived. He was tireless in his devotion to ecclesiastical duties \u2014\u2014, Joseph N. Garvin, and Marthe Dulong, eds. Petri Pictavien- and to the work of a master in lecturing on Scripture, sis Sententiarum libri quinque. 2 vols. Notre Dame: University posing questions for resolution through disputation, and of Notre Dame Press, 1950. providing in his writings the outcome, in a text, of his labors in the classroom. Grover A. Zinn See also Peter Comestor; Stephen Langton PETER THE CHANTER (d. 1197) Further Reading Born near Beauvais, Peter studied at Reims and by ca. 1173 was a master in theology in the schools of Paris. In Peter the Chanter. Summa de sacramentis et animae consiliis, ed. 1183, he was named chanter of the cathedral of Notre- Jean-Albert Dugauquier. 3 vols. in 5. Louvain: Nauwelaerts, Dame in Paris. Peter was judge delegate for the pope 1954\u201367. on a number of occasions, including the divorce trial of Philip II Augustus (1196). He was elected dean of the \u2014\u2014. Verbum abbreviation. PL 205.1\u2013554. [Short version.] cathedral of Reims in 1196, but he became ill and was Baldwin, John W. Masters, Princes, and Merchants: The Social unable to take the position. He entered the Cistercian abbey of Longpont as a monk and died there. Views of Peter the Chanter and His Circle. 2 vols. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970. As a teacher in the schools, Peter exerted a remark- Smalley, Beryl. The Gospels in the Schools c. 1100\u2013c. 1280. able influence on both students and peers. He was at the London: Hambledon, 1985, pp. 101\u201318. center, with Peter Comestor and Stephen Langton, of \u2014\u2014. The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages. 3rd ed. rev. what Beryl Smalley (following Grabmann) called the Oxford: Blackwell, 1983, chap. 5. \u201cbiblical moral school,\u201d a group of masters in the late 12th-century schools who followed the emphasis on Grover A. Zinn biblical study developed at the abbey of Saint-Victor by Hugh, Richard, and Andrew of Saint-Victor. PETER THE VENERABLE (1092\/94\u20131156) While most masters of the day commented only on the Psalms and Gospels, Peter, like Stephen Langton, Born into the noble Montbossier family in Auvergne, commented on all the books of the Old and New Testa- Peter was dedicated by his mother as a child oblate to ments. Moreover, Peter was critical of those masters who the Cluniac monastery of Sauxillanges, where he was devoted themselves to seeking out details of the text and educated. He became a monk of Cluny not long before its interpretation rather than focusing on the important 1109. Four of his six brothers also entered ecclesiasti- matters of moral teaching and behavior. cal careers; one became archbishop of Lyon while the other three were abbots of V\u00e9zelay, La Chaise-Dieu, In addition to his lectures on Scripture (which were and Manglieu. Peter served as prior of V\u00e9zelay and of taken down as reportationes by his students), the Dom\u00e8ne before being elected abbot of Cluny in 1122. Chanter devoted much of his time to lecturing and dis- He proved to be a skillful administrator of a vast mo- puting on moral questions; he found the 12th-century nastic organization comprising over 1,000 dependent church desperately lacking when compared with gospel monasteries and priories; he was also an influential injunctions and Paul\u2019s teaching. Dedicated to testing ecclesiastical leader, had scholarly interests, and was a present practice against the straightforward teaching strong defender of Cluniac customs against Cistercian of Scripture, he was, however, a realist who saw that criticisms. His extensive correspondence with notables seriously embracing scripturally based reform could throughout the western church (193 extant letters) is lead to criticism of accepted practices in the church a rich source of information about various matters, of his day. He raised and resolved hundreds of moral both ecclesiastical and secular, including the world of \u201cquestions,\u201d which were incorporated in his Summa de learning and spirituality. Although Peter and Bernard sacramentis et animae consiliis. The questions, with of Clairvaux were in opposition on matters of monastic numerous exempla to illustrate situations and conclu- discipline and practice, they remained friends through- sions, were grouped according to the sacraments of the out life, as their letters reveal. Peter\u2019s health was never church (baptism, confirmation, extreme unction, con- good, and he probably suffered from malaria on several secration of churches, the eucharist, and penance). All occasions and from chronic bronchitis. systematization seems to have given way in the section on penance, for it is a vast collection of case after case Peter\u2019s election to the abbacy of Cluny came at a for analysis and resolution. Peter\u2019s Verbum abbreviation time when the order needed a firm hand, following the is also directed toward moral concerns, this time with disastrous abbacy of Pons de Melgeuil and the brief copious citations of passages from \u201cauthorities\u201d (Scrip- four-month abbacy of Hugues II. Monastic discipline ture, Christian writers, classical authors) and exempla was lax; finances needed attention; the large sprawling to discourage vice and promote virtue. Although Peter Cluniac order needed an effective leader. Peter rose to 516","the occasion. He began to enforce a more strict disci- PETRARCA, FRANCESCO pline, attended to finances, and traveled often to deal with problems within the order. He was moderate in PETRARCA, FRANCESCO demands, conservative in outlook, conciliatory in ap- (20 July 1304\u201319 July 1374) proach, and thoughtful in controversy. Peter became enmeshed in the controversy between Cistercians and It is a critical commonplace to refer to Dante Alighieri Cluniacs, which was marked by heated exchanges on as the \u201clast medieval man\u201d and to Petrarch (Francesco both sides. Peter\u2019s Letter 28, a response (if not directly, Petrarca) as the \u201cfirst modern man,\u201d but this tends to at least in effect) to Bernard of Clairvaux\u2019s Apologia ad obscure the many distinctly \u201cmedieval\u201d aspects of Guillelmum as well as the general Cistercian attack on Petrarch\u2019s works. To be sure, Petrarch does anticipate Cluniac laxity in discipline and departure from the Rule certain characteristics that are central to our (modern) of St. Benedict, is a carefully reasoned defense of the understanding of the changeover in attitudes in the Cluniac way of life and offers one of the best sources passage from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance: the for understanding both the conflict and the Cluniac emphasis on the individual and on secular matters; the point of view. Peter was no idle defender of the status minute investigation of the human psyche; the imitation quo, however; he actively reformed and strengthened of classical literary forms, style, and language; the un- Cluniac discipline. derstanding of discrete periods in history; and the inter- est in travel undertaken to see and experience the world. Peter wrote against both heresy (the Petrobrusians While all these characteristics suggest Petrarch\u2019s desire [Tractatus adversos Petrobrusianos haereticos]) and to escape the narrow frame of the religiously and morally non-Christian religions (Judaism [Adversos Judaeorum proper medieval world, he repeatedly and simultane- inveteratum duritiem] and Islam [Epistola de trans- ously gives evidence of his longing to embrace that same latione sua; Summa totius haeresis Saracenorum]), world and its precepts. This constant state of tension After a journey to Spain in 1142, he commissioned a is what defines Petarch\u2019s so-called modern sensitivity translation of the Qur\u2019an, the first into Latin, and other and allows us, his readers, to identify with him and his Arabic texts, so that he might better understand Islam in seemingly contradictory aspirations; and this sentiment order to refute it with reason rather than force. In writ- is aptly presented, over and over, in the Canzoniere. We ing against Judaism, he respected the Hebrew version find it in the poems themselves, as in the final verses of of Scripture and argued without special pleading from canzone 264 (I\u2019 vo pensando): ch\u00e9 co la morte a latol Christian Scripture, i.e. the New Testament. cerco del viver mio novo consiglio, le veggio \u2019l meglio et al peggior m\u2019appiglio (verses 136\u2013136), of which the In addition to his numerous journeys in France, Pe- final verse is a direct and sympathetic translation from ter traveled to England (1130 and 1155), Spain (1142; Ovid (Metamorphoses, 7.20\u201321). Or we note how Pe- perhaps 1124 and 1127), and Rome (1139 [Lateran trarch has ordered the poetic universe of the Canzoniere Council], 1144,1145,1147,1151\u201352,1154). He extended by juxtaposing poems that praise, alternately, his love of the hospitality of Cluny to Peter Ab\u2013lard after Ab\u2013lard\u2019s earthly things and his profound repentance for such an condemnation at Sens in 1140. Peter the Venerable wrote attitude, as, for example, in the positioning of the two to H\u2013lo+se a sensitive letter giving a detailed account of sonnets Benedetto sia \u2018l giorno, e\u2019 l mese, e l\u2019anno (61) Ab\u2013lard\u2019s last days. In addition to the works mentioned and Padre del ciel, dopo i perduti giorni (62). above, his writings include sermons, liturgical texts (in- cluding an Office of the Transfiguration), hymns, and a In all of Petrarch\u2019s works, we recognize the acute eye treatise recounting holy lives (De miraculis). He was an of the intellectual who carefully observes himself and exemplar of the best of the Benedictine tradition. the world around him and attempts to make some sense of the fragile human condition and its immediate and See also Ab\u00e9lard, Peter; Bernard of Clairvaux; ultimate purpose within the great order of the cosmos. H\u00e9lo\u00efse It is in this unprecedented focus on his own personal situation that we may observe Petrarch\u2019s genius and Further Reading the human drama played out on a small yet universal stage. Peter the Venerable. Opera omnia. PL 189.61\u20131054. \u2014\u2014. The Letters of Peter the Venerable, ed. Giles Constable. 2 While most of his works are ultimately about him- self and are thus full of interesting though stylized and vols. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967. carefully crafted bits of autobiographical information, Constable, Giles, ed. Petrus Venerabilis, 1156\u20131956: Studies and Petrarch did write, late in his life, a Letter to Posterity (the Latin title is Ad posteros or Posteritati), to future Texts Commemorating the Eighth Centenary of His Death. generations who might be curious to learn more about Rome: Herder, 1956. him and his life. This fragmentary epistle was first Knowles, David. The Historian and Character. Cambridge: composed in 1367 and was revised in 1370\u20131371, yet Cambridge University Press, 1963, pp. 50\u201375. the latest event recounted is from 1351. In the letter, Grover A. Zinn 517","PETRARCA, FRANCESCO and mind\u2014of his \u201ctransalpine solitude.\u201d The last few sentences of the letter speak of Petrarch\u2019s affection for Petrarch intends to speak about himself, his interests, Jacopo da Carrara theYounger, ruler of Padua; and while his outlook\u2014in short, about his personality. What strikes Petrarch would have liked to reside permanently in the modern reader is the egotism that pervades the letter, Padua, Jacopo\u2019s untimely death in December 1350 made the dramatic departure from the more humble attitude that impossible. Petrarch notes: \u201cI could stay no longer generally adopted by medieval authors who were less [in Padua], and I returned to France, not so much from likely to put themselves and their accomplishments on a desire to see again what I had already seen a thousand display in such a self-centered and self-serving way. times as, like a sick man, to be rid of distress by shifting Although idealized, conventional portraits are common position.\u201d This sentence represents perfectly Petrarch\u2019s in works of medieval literature and although the vidas carefully constructed persona: he is the restless traveler, of the troubadours and Dante\u2019s Vita nuova present so- the seeker of old manuscripts, the frequenter of ancient called personal data as historical facts, the authorial \u201cI\u201d sites in an attempt to recapture something of their past and the empirical \u201cI\u201d remain distinctly separate persons. glory. The image of the sick man who tries to assuage his With Petrarch, however, we see a dramatic change in pain by shifting position recalls Saint Augustine\u2019s image the attitude toward autobiography, such that we know of the sick woman, who, in allegorical terms, represents more about this fourteenth-century author than about the unquiet human soul that will find its peace only in virtually any other person of his age, precisely because God (Confessions, 6.16); however, here Petrarch\u2019s frame the author himself decided that this would be the case. of reference is limited to earthly life. In this passage, To make sure that we would know about him, Petrarch we also observe the drama of his own internal conflict compiled large collections of letters, made copious an- as one caught between earthly attractions and spiritual notations on his manuscripts, and left us other pieces of aspirations, one who, profoundly discontent with his evidence that allow us see and understand his life as he own age, but powerless to change it, dreams of a past wanted it to be recorded and remembered. Thus, in the grandeur and of a better future time. His confessional Letter to Posterity, Petrarch fashions his own identity, work, the Secretum, in which Augustine is one of the creates his own historical persona, and delineates his interlocutors, is concerned with this same conflict. role in the events of his time. From other, independent documents we are able to judge the accuracy of the Life and Works Letter to Posterity, and we may conclude that he was a master of self-promotion, acutely aware of his particular Petrarch was born in Arezzo to Pietro di Parenzo and place in history. For this reason, we may view him as a Eletta Canigiani. His father, usually called Ser Petracco, precursor of humanistic attitudes on the individual that was a notary who had migrated to Florence from his would emerge in the next centuries. hometown of Incisa in the Arno River valley. During the tumultuous early years of the fourteenth century, he In the Letter to Posterity, Petrarch describes him- made some political enemies in Florence and was exiled self as modest and even tempered, as one who prefers on false charges of corruption in public office in October sacred literature to vernacular poetry, who is acutely 1302\u2014some nine months after the expulsion of Dante aware of the greatness of antiquity to the impoverished Alighieri on similar grounds. Early in 1305, Petrarch and state of his own age, who yearns for the tranquil life his mother moved to Incisa, where his brother Gherardo of the country and disparages the hectic pace of urban was born in 1307. After six years in Incisa, the family society. While he notes that in his youth he had been moved to Pisa (1311), where Francesco may have seen overwhelmed by a powerful love, he declares that this Dante among a group of fellow Florentine exiles. In is a thing of the past. Despite his voluminous literary 1312, Ser Petracco resettled his family in Carpentras in production in both Latin and Italian, Petrarch refers southern France, where he was associated with the papal only to his works in Latin\u2014his epic poem Africa, his court of Clement V in Avignon. In Carpentras, Francesco treatise on the solitary life (De vita solitaria), and his began his study of grammar and rhetoric with Conve- pastoral poems (Bucolicum carmen)\u2014for they are the nevole da Prato and became friends with Guido Sette, reason for his coronation as poet laureate in Rome atop a boy his own age whose family had moved to France the Capitoline Hill. As Petrarch tells the story, on the from Genoa. In 1316, Ser Petracco decided that Petrarch same day (1 September 1340), he received invitations should become a lawyer and sent him to the University for coronations from the chancellor of the University of Montpellier. During this period his mother died, and of Paris and from the Roman senate; to have chosen to commemorate the sorrowful occasion Petrarch com- Paris would have been to give precedence to scholastic posed his earliest surviving work, an elegiac poem in culture, and thus his choice of Rome was intended to thirty-eight Latin hexameters. In 1320, Francesco went, help restore the ancient glory of that city. together with his brother and Guido Sette, to Bologna In the Letter to Posterity, Petrarch also speaks about his family and friends, his personal habits, his travels, the cities where he lived, and the benefits\u2014for work 518","Altichiero da Zevio (1330\u20131385). Francesco Petrarca, poet. PETRARCA, FRANCESCO Detail from the Burial of Saint Lucia. Fresco (1479\u20131381). \u00a9 Erick Lessing\/Art Resource, New York. turn offered Petrarch a position as personal chaplain in his household. At Giacomo Colonna\u2019s residence in the to continue his legal studies, and although he excelled summer of 1330, Petrarch met and became friends with academically, he came to realize that the legal profession two other young men: Lello di Pietro Stefano dei Tosetti was not for him. Nevertheless, the years in Bologna were from Rome (whom Petrarch nicknamed \u201cLelius\u201d) and important in his literary and cultural development, for Ludwig van Kempen (\u201cSocrates\u201d) from Flanders, who he befriended a number of other Students and became served as chanter in Cardinal Colonna\u2019s chapel. These familiar with the Italian lyric tradition. On the death of and other close friends would be very important to his father in April 1326, he returned to Avignon. Petrarch throughout the course of his life. On Good Friday, 6 April 1327, in the Church of Saint As a member of the cardinal\u2019s staff, Petrarch was able Clare in Avignon, Petrarch first saw and immediately to travel and meet many people. In 1333, he traveled to fell in love with the woman whom he would call Laura. Paris and, from there, to Ghent, Li\u00e8ge, Aix-la-Chapelle, This passion would provide inspiration for his poetic Cologne, and Lyon. During these travels he began his imagination for his entire life. Many poems contained in lifelong pursuit of manuscripts containing works by the evolving collection known as the Rerum vulgarium classical authors, discovering at Li\u00e8ge, for example, fragmenta or Canzoniere celebrate his love for her, as some of Cicero\u2019s orations (Pro Archia). Also in 1333, in well as her symbolic meaning. Her name, Laura\u2014like Avignon, Petrarch met the Augustinian monk Dionigi da that of Dante\u2019s Beatrice (\u201cone who gives blessedness Borgo San Sepolcro, who introduced him to the works of or salvation\u201d)\u2014was significant in that it suggested the early Christian writers, especially Saint Augustine, and evergreen laurel tree, sacred to Apollo, and thus the who gave Petrarch his copy of the Confessions. In a letter laurel crown of poetic glory. Throughout the Canzo- to Dionigi (Familiares, 4.1, dated 26 April 1336), Pe- niere, Petrarch engages in elaborate wordplay based on trarch gives an account of his and his brother Gherardo\u2019s \u201cLaura,\u201d using such puns as l\u2019aura (\u201cthe breeze\u201d) and ascent of Mont Ventoux. In it he relates, in thinly veiled aureola (\u201cgolden\u201d) to reiterate her importance. allegorical language, how rapidly Gherardo arrives at the summit (signifying the benefits of his monastic In 1330, Petrarch and his brother Gherardo had al- vocation) but how difficult his own climb is (signifying most dissipated their inheritance. Refusing to follow law the attraction of earthly things). Finally, arriving at the or medicine as a profession, Petrarch had to find other summit and overwhelmed by the majesty of the view, employment. Fortunately, he had befriended the bishop Petrarch opens his copy of Augustine\u2019s Confessions and of Lombez, Giacomo Colonna, who recommended Pe- reads the following morally oriented monitory sentence: trarch to his brother Cardinal Giovanni Colonna, who in \u201cAnd men go about wondering at mountain heights and the mighty waves of the sea and broad flowing streams and the circuit of the sea and the wheeling of the stars: and to themselves they give no heed\u201d (10.8.15). The relevance of these words to Petrarch\u2019s own situation and their call to introspection are obvious: it is always more difficult to ascend the steep path to the good than it is to wander around in the valleys looking for an easy route to happiness. This intensely Augustinian moment demonstrates the great influence that the saint had on Petrarch, not only in literature but also in life. In January 1335, thanks to a recommendation by Cardinal Colonna, Petrarch was named by Pope Bene- dict XII to a canonry in the cathedral of Lombez, an appointment that supported him financially but did not require his residence. Sometime before this appoint- ment, Petrarch had written a long letter in Latin verse to Pope Benedict XII encouraging Benedict to return to Rome. This is the first indication we have of Petrarch\u2019s firm belief in the preeminence of Rome as the rightful seat of both the papacy and the empire. Petrarch first journeyed to Rome, as a guest of the Colonna family, late in 1336, and that visit determined his attitude to- ward the classical past. In a letter to Cardinal Giovanni Colonna, dated 15 March 1337 (Familiares, 2.14), he 519","PETRARCA, FRANCESCO his fame for posterity and, just as important, reestablish Rome as the locus for culture in the world. To ascertain recounts his first impressions of Rome: \u201cNo doubt I his worthiness for this honor, he voluntarily underwent have accumulated a lot of matter to write about later, a rigorous examination by his sponsor, King Robert of but at present I am so overwhelmed and stunned by the Anjou of Naples. On 8 April 1341, in the palace of the abundant marvels that I shouldn\u2019t dare to begin. . . . Rome senate on the Capitoline, Petrarch was crowned poet was greater than I thought, and so are its remains. Now I laureate and delivered an oration, in which he spoke wonder not that the world was ruled by this city but that of the poet\u2019s responsibility and rewards as well as the the rule came so late.\u201d Petrarch\u2019s enthusiasm for Rome nature of the poet\u2019s profession. The Coronation Oration is complemented by his patriotism for Italy in general; is a wonderful combination of medieval homily and clas- for example, in canzone 128 of the Canzoniere, Italia sical rhetoric; in it Petrarch begins with a citation from mia, bench\u00e9 \u2018l parlar sia indarno, he laments Italy\u2019s Virgil\u2019s Georgics (3.291\u2013292), interrupts it with a reci- abject, strife-torn condition; issues a call to arms (verses tation of the Ave Maria, and then immediately returns 93\u201396); and concludes with an urgent plea for peace, i\u2019 to the Virgilian passage. The remainder of the oration vo gridando: Pace, pace, pace (verse 122). contains numerous citations from Virgil, Ovid, Cicero, Horace, and other classical authors. The fame that Pe- Shortly after his return to Avignon in 1337, Petrarch trarch achieved in this single event was immeasurable; purchased property and a house in Vaucluse along the indeed, he was now a celebrity, one who was in demand Sorgue River, and this became his resort of peace and as an honored guest in cities throughout Europe and was solitude: transalpina solitudo mea jocundissima (\u201cMy cheered wherever he went. This was, in many ways, the most delightful transalpine solitary refuge\u201d). In this beginning of what we might call the cult of personality locus amoenus he found the time to read, meditate, that Petrarch cultivated and shaped for himself. After write, and entertain close friends. Vaucluse represented leaving Rome, Petrarch spent time in Parma as a guest for Petrarch the Ciceronian ideal of ottum, the leisure of the Correggio family and finished a draft of his Africa. to pursue one\u2019s interests without having to attend to the When he returned to Provence, he began to study Greek concerns of everyday life. A new acquaintance of his in with the Calabrian monk Barlaam, but without mastering Vaucluse was Philippe de Cabassoles, bishop of Cavil- much beyond a very elementary level. lon, to whom Petrarch would later dedicate his Latin treatise De vita solitaria (On the Solitary Life). The year 1343 was important for Petrarch. At the pa- pal court in Avignon, he met Cola di Rienzo, who would During this period of meditative leisure, Petrarch later become the Roman \u201ctribune of the people.\u201d In Feb- began several of his works, some of classical inspiration: ruary, Robert of Anjou died. In April, Petrarch\u2019s brother the treatise on the lives of famous men, De viris illus- Gherardo became a Carthusian monk, and this led Pe- tribus; his epic poem on the deeds of Scipio Africanus, trarch to reexamine his own life and goals. In 1343, his Africa; his collection of Italian poems, the Canzoniere or illegitimate daughter, Francesca, was born. From these Rerum vulgarium fragmenta; and the Triumph of Love, troubling events emerged his soul-searching imaginary the first of the Trionfi\u2014six allegorical poems in terza dialogue with (Saint) Augustine\u2014the Secretum\u2014as rima, based on the descriptions of ancient triumphal well as his Seven Penitential Psalms and his treatise on pageants. Petrarch would continue to revise most of the cardinal virtues, the Rerum memorandarum libri. these works for the rest of his life. The evolution of the In form and content, the Secretum is based on classi- Canzoniere can be traced through extant manuscripts, cal and early Christian models, especially Augustine\u2019s some in Petrarch\u2019s own hand, that disclose the succes- Confessions. Whereas in his work the saint achieves a sive forms of the collection; this would culminate in relative peace, Petrarch is constantly tormented by the the version in the Vatican Library, Codex Lat. 3195. unresolved conflict between spiritual aspirations and Although he divided his time at Vaucluse between Latin worldly concerns. Despite the sound Christian advice and Italian works, Petrarch clearly indicated his prefer- imparted by the character Augustinus to Franciscus and ence for the former. On 1 September 1340 he received the insistent call to meditate on death in order to prepare two invitations to be crowned poet laureate: one letter one\u2019s soul for the afterlife, Franciscus cannot easily came from the chancellor of the University of Paris and abandon his earthly pursuits, nor does he really wish the other from the Roman senate. Because we know that to. The lack of resolution at the end of the three-day Petrarch carefully planned the sequence of events lead- dialogue suggests not so much Petrarch\u2019s lack of faith ing to these invitations, we can appreciate the coyness as his very human reluctance to abandon immediate with which he reports his careful weighing of these of- worldly pursuits in favor of distant eternal rewards. fers, his asking advice from Cardinal Colonna, and his eventual (but foregone) decision to accept the invitation During the next few years, Petrarch traveled fre- from Rome. Petrarch was familiar with the coronation quently: to Naples (in 1343), Parma (1344\u20131345), and of poets in antiquity and with a recent revival of that Verona (1345). In the Capitular Library in Verona, he tradition (the coronation of Albertino Mussato in Padua in 1315). This signal honor would, he thought, ensure 520","found and transcribed the manuscript of Cicero\u2019s letters PETRARCA, FRANCESCO to Atticus, a discovery that encouraged him to begin his own series of letters addressed to classical authors. After in Milan, as a guest of the Visconti family and with returning to Vaucluse in 1346, Petrarch began work on the special support of Archbishop Giovanni Visconti. his treatise on the solitary life, De vita solitaria, which Despite the criticism he received from his friends for he subsequently dedicated to Philippe de Cabassoles. In living under a despot, Petrarch was pleased with his cir- 1347, Petrarch was happy to receive news of a revolution cumstances, for he was able to do virtually anything he in Rome and the nomination of Cola di Rienzo to the wanted. One project he began there became his longest position of tribune (essentially, dictator), for in these work, De remediis utriusque fortune, a moral treatise events he saw some signs of the old Roman grandeur. In in two books, the first dealing with the perils of good letters to Cola and the Roman people, Petrarch encour- fortune and the second with the dangers of its opposite, aged them in their battle for liberty. However, Cola\u2019s adverse fortune. The form of De remediis is a series of excesses and megalomania would gradually undermine dialogues between personified qualities; for example, in his position and destroy Petrarch\u2019s faith in him. After Book I, Joy and Hope\u2014the children of Prosperity\u2014ar- imprisonment in Avignon on charges of heresy, Cola gue against Reason; and in Book II, Reason\u2019s opponents returned to Rome as a senator, only to meet his death are Sorrow and Fear, the offspring of Adversity. It was at the hands of the Roman people in 1354. in Milan that Petrarch met Emperor Charles IV, whom he encouraged to reestablish the empire with Rome as In 1347\u20131348, the time of the black death, Petrarch its capital. These dealings with Charles, undertaken on was in Verona and in Parma, where news of Laura\u2019s behalf of the Visconti, allowed Petrarch to travel to Ba- death (6 April 1348) came to him in a letter from his sel and Prague. In 1361, the Visconti sent him to Paris, old friend \u201cSocrates.\u201d The date of Laura\u2019s death and that where he delivered an oration, in Latin, in the presence of his first meeting with her, exactly twenty-one years of King John of France and John\u2019s court. Petrarch\u2019s eight before in 1327, would provide the basic chronological years in Milan marked the longest nearly continuous structure for a series of \u201canniversary\u201d poems in the residency of his life. Moreover, they were productive Canzoniere. The disastrous effects of the plague, which years, allowing him to complete De remediis and to resulted in the deaths of several friends (e.g., Cardinal make great progress in his compilation of the Canzo- Colonna and Franceschino degli Albizzi), led Petrarch niere and the Familiares. to write the Triumph of Death (Triumphus mortis). After his move to Padua in the summer of 1361, His discovery of Cicero\u2019s letters in Verona in 1345 Petrarch received the sad news of the deaths of his gave Petrarch the idea of collecting his own letters, and illegitimate son Giovanni (who died in the plague in by 1350 he was actively engaged in this project, which Milan) and of his old friends \u201cSocrates\u201d and Philippe would lead to the formation of the Familiares (twenty- de Vitry. However, he enjoyed frequent correspondence four books), Seniles (seventeen books), Sine nomine and encounters with Boccaccio, who often supplied (nineteen letters), and Epistolae metricae (three books). him with copies of rare manuscripts (e.g., Augustine\u2019s For the jubilee year of 1350, Petrarch traveled to Rome, Expositions on the Psalms, Varro\u2019s De lingua latina, stopping on the way in Florence, where he met Giovanni the life of Peter Damian). In May 1362, Petrarch had Boccaccio for the first time. Among Petrarch\u2019s many an opportunity to advise Boccaccio, who had been ter- admirers in Florence were Boccaccio, Zanobi da Strada, rified by a visit from a fanatical monk representing the Francesco Nelli, and Lapo da Castiglionchio. Always late Pietro Petroni of Siena. Informed that he did not searching for manuscripts, Petrarch found in Lapo\u2019s have long to live and that he should renounce the study library a copy of Quintilian\u2019s Institutes and some of of poetry, Boccaccio thought first to dispose of all his Cicero\u2019s orations. After his Roman pilgrimage, Petrarch books, but Petrarch dissuaded him and encouraged him spent time in Parma and Padua. The Florentine republic to continue his studies. However, Petrarch said that he offered him a teaching post at the university there, and would gladly buy Boccaccio\u2019s books if Boccaccio had the pope summoned him to return to Avignon. In 1351\u2013 a change of heart. Petrarch\u2019s love of books, and his zeal 1352, Petrarch was once again working in Vaucluse on in collecting them, enabled him to amass what was at De viris illustribus and the Canzoniere. In 1353, during the time perhaps the largest private library in Europe. his last months in Vaucluse, Petrarch was involved in an Recognizing the value of his collection, Petrarch reached extended and intense debate with one of the pope\u2019s doc- a formal agreement with the maggior consiglio of Venice tors over the relative merits of medicine and poetry, and whereby he would give his library to Venice in exchange this discussion resulted in the Invective contra medicum, for a suitable house there and the assurance that his in which Petrarch defends the supremacy of the liberal books would not be dispersed. Petrarch\u2019s collection thus arts over the lower mechanical arts and praises poetry formed the basis for the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice. as the highest form of wisdom. In Venice, Petrarch enjoyed visits from Boccaccio and numerous other friends; he also was gladdened by the During 1353\u20131361, Petrarch lived for the most part birth of his grandchildren (Eletta and Francesco) and 521","PETRARCA, FRANCESCO sition of the Canzoniere was attended to with great care: its 366 poems are divided into two major sections\u2014In saddened by the death of his friends \u201cLaelius\u201d and vita di madonna Laura and In morte di madonna Lau- Francesco Nelli. ra\u2014beginning with the secular sonnet Voi ch\u2019ascoltate in rime sparse il suono (\u201cYou who hear the sound in Around 1366, Petrarch employed Giovanni Mal- scattered rhymes\u201d) and ending with the religious ode to paghini as a scribe for the tedious task of copying the the Virgin Vergina bella, che di sol vestita (\u201cBeautiful Familiares and the Canzoniere. In 1367, during a jour- Virgin, clothed with the sun\u201d). A large variety of subjects ney to Pavia by canal barge, Petrarch was able to respond and themes\u2014amorous, political, artistic, moral, and to accusations lodged against him a year previously religious\u2014are treated; nevertheless, the truly remark- by four Aristotelian philosophers (Leonardo Dandolo, able feature of the collection is Petrarch\u2019s obsessive Tommaso Talenti, Zaccaria Contarini, and Guido da attention to the presentation of his own poetic persona. Bagnolo) who claimed that he was \u201ca good man, but Many poems in the Canzoniere are characterized by uneducated.\u201d In his response, the invective De sui ipsius stylized, conventional attitudes toward love and by the et multorum ignorantia (On His Own Ignorance and presentation of a pensive, introspective lover, and these That of Many Others), Petrarch gives clear evidence of features were imitated widely in the Renaissance. This the changeover from the outmoded ideas of scholastic combination of psychological and poetic conceits would philosophy to the new humanism; in particular, he argues come to constitute what we generally refer to today as that the source of knowledge lies not in pseudoscientific Petrarchism. Although Petrarch was not the inventor syllogistic arguments but rather in a profound intuitive of the sonnet, he brought it to such perfection that this awareness of the self. fourteen-line metrical form has become known as the Petrarchan sonnet. The six allegorical Triumphs (Tri- In 1368, Petrarch, having been given some land near onfi), which relate the progress of the soul in relation to Arqu\u00e0 (some 10 miles, or about 16 kilometers, southwest love, chastity, death, fame, time, and eternity, had a ma- of Padua)\u2014initiated the construction of a house, which jor impact on Renaissance literature, art, and pageantry. was finished in 1370. Among his possessions were a lute and a painting of the Madonna by Giotto, both of The Latin Works which have disappeared. Failing health prevented him from undertaking some highly desired trips to Rome and Petrarch\u2019s literary production in Latin encompasses a Avignon. His last works include a translation into Latin number of major themes that highlight his crucial place of Boccaccio\u2019s story of Griselda (Decameron, 10.10) in the history of western civilization. On the one hand, and the Invective against the Man Who Maligned Italy his treatises on fortune (De remediis utriusque fortune) (Invectiva contra eum qui maledixit Italie). The motiva- and on the monastic life (De otio religioso) are distinctly tion for the Invective was an anonymous letter written by medieval in flavor and conception. On the other hand, a Frenchman (Jean de Hesdin) that praised the French there is a definite, forward-looking \u201cRenaissance\u201d cast and spoke ill of Italy. As for the tale of patient Griselda, to many of the Latin works. Petrarch consciously at- Petrarch was so taken by its value as a moral example tempted to revive classical genres and patterns in the that he wanted to make it available to readers who did not epic poem Africa and in the series of famous lives (De know Italian, and his translation was Chaucer\u2019s model viris illustribus) and events (Rerum memorandarum for the Clerk\u2019s Tale in the Canterbury Tales. In his last libri). His treatise on the solitary life, De vita solitaria, years, Petrarch went on several diplomatic missions for is a well-reasoned defense of the Ciceronian ideal of Francesco da Carrara; he wrote letters and continued studious leisure (otium), which he tried to follow in his to work on the definitive versions of the Canzoniere, own life. He took the cue from classical examples in his Trionfi, and De viris illustribus as well as on the com- collections of letters, in his invectives, in his pastoral pilations of his letters. During the night between 18 and poems (Bucolicum carmen), and in his dialogue with 19 July 1374, Petrarch died. He was buried on 24 July Augustine (Secretum). in a marble tomb in the parish church at Arqu\u00e0. See also Boccaccio, Giovanni; Chaucer, Geoffrey; The Vernacular Works Dante Alighieri; Robert of Anjou Although the Letter to Posterity says virtually nothing Further Reading about his Italian works, Petrarch obviously considered them of great importance, for he was continuously revis- Editions and Translations of Petrarch ing them up to the very end of his life. If what he says in the Letter to Posterity is truly indicative of the way Il Bucolicum carmen e i suoi commenti inediti, ed. Antonio Av- he wanted to be remembered, then it is a great irony, ena. Padua: Societ\u00e0 Cooperativa Tipografica, 1906. (Reprint, for his fame today rests primarily on his Italian poetry, Bologna: Forni, 1969.) which proved so influential during the Renaissance, particularly in France, Spain, and England. The compo- 522","Canzoniere, ed. Gianfranco Contini. Turin: Einaudi, 1968. PETRARCA, FRANCESCO Canzoniere, 2 vols, ed. Ugo Dotti. Rome: Donzelli, 1996. Canzoniere, ed. Marco Santagata. Milan: Mondadori, 1996. Rime disperse, ed. and trans. Joseph A. Barber. New York: Il \u201cDe otio religioso,\u201d ed. Giuseppe Rotondi. Vatican City: Bib- Garland, 1991. lioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1958. Rime disperse, ed. Angelo Solerti. Florence: Sansoni, 1909. De viris illustribus, ed. Guido Martellotti. Florence: Sansoni, 1964. Rime, Trionfi, e Poesie Latine, ed. F. Neri, G. Martellotti, E. Bian- De vita solitaria, Buch I: Kritische Textausgabe und Ideenge- chi, and N. Sapegno. Milan and Naples: Ricciardi, 1951. schichtlicher Kommentar, ed. K. A. E. Enenkel. Leiden: Salmi penitenziali, ed. Roberto Gigliucci. Rome: Salerno Edi- Brill, 1990. Epistolae de rebus familiaribus et varie, 3 vols, ed. G. Fracassetti. trice, 1997. Florence: Le Monnier, 1859. Secretum, ed. Ugo Dotti. Rome: Archivio Guido Izzi, 1993. Invective contra medicum, ed. P. G. Ricci. Rome: Edizioni di Sine nomine: Lettere polemiche e politiche. Bari: Laterza, Storia e Letteratura, 1950. Letters from Petrarch, trans. Morris Bishop. Bloomington: Indi- 1974. ana University Press, 1966. Trionfi, Rime estravaganti, Codice degli abbozzi, ed. Vinicio Letters of Old Age: Rerum Senilium Libri XVIII, 2 vols., trans. Aldo S. Bernardo, Saul Levin, and Reta A. Bernardo. Balti- Pacca and Laura Paolino. Milan: Mondadori, 1996. more, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992. The Triumphs of Petrarch, trans. Ernest Hatch Wilkins. Chicago, Letters on Familiar Matters (Rerum familiarum libri) I\u2014XVI, trans. Aldo S. Bernardo. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1962. University Press, 1982. Letters on Familiar Matters (Rerum familiarum libri) XVII\u2013XXIV, Critical Studies trans. Aldo S. Bernardo. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985. Amaturo, Raffaele. Petrarca. Bari: Laterza, 1971. The Life of Solitude, trans. Jacob Zeitlin. Urbana: University of Baron, Hans. Petrarch\u2019s \u201cSecretum\u201d: Its Making and Its Meaning. Illinois Press, 1924. Lord Morley\u2019s \u201cTryumphes of Fraunces Petrarcke\u201d: The First Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985. English Translation of the \u201cTrionfi,\u201d ed. D. D. Carnicelli. Bernardo, Aldo S. Petrarch, Scipio, and the \u201cAfrica\u201d: The Birth Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971. Petrarch: The Canzoniere or Rerum vulgarium fragmenta, trans. of Humanism\u2019s Dream. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Uni- Mark Musa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996. versity Press, 1962. Petrarch\u2019s Africa, trans. Thomas G. Bergin and Alice S. Wilson. \u2014\u2014. Petrarch, Laura, and the Triumphs. Albany: State Univer- New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977. sity of New York Press, 1974. Petrarch\u2019s Book without a Name: A Translation of the Liber Sine Bishop, Morris. Petrarch and His World. Bloomington: Indiana Nomine, trans. Norman P. Zacour. Toronto: Pontifical Institute University Press, 1963. of Mediaeval Studies, 1973. Bosco, Umberto. Francesco Petrarca. Bari: Laterza, 1961. Petrarch\u2019s Bucolicum Carmen, trans. Thomas G. Bergin. New Cosenza, Mario Emilio. Francesco Petrarca and the Revolution Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1974. of Cola di Rienzo, 2nd ed. NewYork: Italica, 1986. (With new Petrarch\u2019s Letters to Classical Authors, trans. Mario Cosenza. introduction and bibliography by Ronald G. Musto. Originally Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1910. published 1913.) Petrarch\u2019s Lyric Poems: The \u201cRime Sparse\u201d and Other Lyrics, Dotti, Ugo. Vita di Petrarca. Bari: Laterza, 1987. ed. and trans. Robert M. Durling. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Forster, Leonard. The Icy Fire: Five Studies in European Petrar- University Press, 1976. chism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969. Petrarch\u2019s Remedies for Fortune Fair and Foul, 5 vols., trans. Foster, Kenelm. Petrarch: Poet and Humanist. Edinburgh: Edin- Conrad H. Rawski. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, burgh University Press, 1984. 1991. Francesco Petrarca, Citizen of the World, ed. Aldo S. Bernardo. Petrarch\u2019s \u201cSecretum\u201d with Introduction, Notes, and Critical Padua and Albany: Antenore and State University of New Anthology, trans. Davy A. Carozza and H. James Shey. New York Press, 1980. York: Peter Lang, 1989. Francis Petrarch, Six Centuries Later: A Symposium, ed. Aldo Petrarch\u2019s \u201cSongbook,\u201d \u201cRerum vulgarium fragmenta\u201d: A Verse Scaglione. Chapel Hill and Chicago, Ill.: University of North Translation, trans. James Wyatt Cook. Binghamton, N.Y.: Carolina and Newberry Library, 1975. Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies, 1995. Hainsworth, Peter. Petrarch the Poet: An Introduction to the Prose, ed. G. Martellotti, P. G. Ricci, E. Carrara, and E. Bianchi. Rerum Vulgarium Fragmenta. New York and London: Rout- Milan and Naples: Ricciardi, 1955. ledge, 1988. The Renaissance Philosophy of Man, ed. Ernst Cassirer, Paul Jones, Frederic J. The Structure of Petrarch\u2019s \u201cCanzoniere\u201d: A Oskar Kristeller, and John Herman Randall, Jr. Chicago, Ill.: Chronological, Psychological, and Stylistic Analysis. Cam- University of Chicago Press, 1948. (Contains the following bridge: D. S. Brewer, 1995. translations: A Self-Portrait; The Ascent of Mont Ventoux; On Kennedy, William J. Authorizing Petrarch. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell His Own Ignorance and That of Many Others; A Disapproval University Press, 1994. of an Unreasonable Use of the Discipline of Dialectic; An Mann, Nicholas. Petrarch. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Averroist Visits Petrarca. Petrarca\u2019s Aversion to Arab Science; 1984. A Request to Take Up the Fight against Averroes.) Mazzotta, Giuseppe. The Worlds of Petrarch. Durham, N.C.: Rerum familiarium: Libri I\u2014VIII, trans. Aldo S. Bernardo. Al- Duke University Press, 1993. bany: State University of New York Press, 1975. Nolhac, Pierre de. Petrarque et l\u2019humanisme, 2 vols. Paris: Rerum memorandarum libri, ed. Giuseppe Billanovich. Flor- Champion, 1907. ence, 1945. Petrarch\u2019s \u201cTriumphs\u201d: Allegory and Spectacle, ed. Konrad Eisen- bichler and Amilcare A. lannucci. Ottawa: Dovehouse, 1990. Rico, Francisco. Vida u obra de Petrarca. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1974. Shapiro, Marianne. Hieroglyph of Time: The Petrarchan Sestina. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980. Sturm-Maddox, Sara. Petrarch\u2019s Metamorphoses. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1985. \u2014\u2014. Petrarch\u2019s Laurels. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992. 523","PETRARCA, FRANCESCO Although Petrus was deeply attached to Christina, he repeatedly emphasizes that their love is a spiritual one, Trinkaus, Charles. The Poet as Philosopher: Petrarch and the having Christ for its true object. Formation of Renaissance Consciousness. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1979. Petrus\u2019s other known work is De gratia naturam ditante sive De virtutibus Christinae Stumbelensis (\u201cOn Whitfield, J. H. Petrarch and the Renascence. Oxford: Black- Grace Enriching Nature, or On the Virtues of Christina well, 1943. of Stommeln\u201d). It consists of a poem of forty-three hexameters praising Christina\u2019s virtues and a long theo- Wilkins, Ernest Hatch. The Making of the Canzoniere and Other logical treatise commenting on each word of the poem. Petrarchan Studies. Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura, The greater part of this work is lost. Petrus exploits his 1951. philosophical and theological learning to find theoretical explanations of Christina\u2019s behavior. The work presents \u2014\u2014. Studies in the Life and Works of Petrarch. Cambridge, few original thoughts, being mainly a compilation of the Mass.: Medieval Academy of America, 1955. ideas of Petrus\u2019s masters in Cologne and Paris, Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. \u2014\u2014. Petrarch\u2019s Eight Years in Milan. Cambridge, Mass.: Me- dieval Academy of America, 1958. Further Reading \u2014\u2014. Petrarch\u2019s Later Years. Cambridge, Mass.: Medieval Acad- Editions emy of America, 1959. Petrus de Dacia. Vita Christinae Stumbelensis. Ed. Johannes \u2014\u2014. Life of Petrarch. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Paulson. Scriptores Latini Medii Aeui Suecani, 1. fasc. 2. Press, 1961. Gothenburg: Wettergren & Kerber, 1896. \u2014\u2014. Studies on Petrarch and Boccaccio. Padua: Antenore, Petrus de Dacia. De gratianaturam ditante sive De virtutibus 1978. Christinae Stumbelensis. Edition critique avec une introduc- tion par Monika Asztalos. Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Christopher Kleinhenz Studia Latina Stockholmiensia, 28. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1982 [review by Eva Odelman in Archivum Lati- PETRUS DE DACIA (ca. 1230\u20131289) nitatis Medii Aevi, 43 (1984), 166\u201376); [a new edition of Petrus\u2019s letters with a Swedish translation is being prepared Petrus de Dacia is called Sweden\u2019s first author. While by Monika Asztalos]. studying at the studium generale of the Dominicans in Cologne (1267\u20131269), Petrus visited the nearby village Literature of Stommeln, where he met the German beguine Chris- tina of Stommeln in 1267. As Christina\u2019s confessor, Sch\u00fcck, Henrik. V\u00e5r f\u00f6rste f\u00f6rfattare. En sj\u00e4lshistoria fr\u00e5n me- he often witnessed her remarkable and even terrifying deltiden. Stockholm: Geber, 1916. experiences: ecstasies, stigmatizations, and visions that convinced him that Christina was a saint capable Lehmann, Paul. Skandinaviens Anteil an der lateinischen Lit- of showing him the right way to God. In 1269\u20131270, eratur und Wissenschaft des Mittelalters. 1. St\u00fcck. Sitzungs- when studying in Paris, Petrus began the correspondence berichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. with Christina that continued until his death. In 1270, Philosophisch-historische Abteilung, jahrgang 1936, Heft 2. he returned to Sweden, revisiting Stommeln on his way Munich: Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1936, home, and in 1271 he was appointed lector of the Do- pp. 44\u201347. minican convent of Skanninge. Not earlier than 1277, he was transferred to V\u00e4ster\u00e4s, where he became lector Gall\u00e9n, jarl. La province de Dacie de l\u2019ordre des Fr\u00e8res Pr\u00each- and then prior, until 1280, when he was made lector of eurs. 1: Histoire g\u00e9n\u00e9rale jusqu\u2019au grand schisme. Helsinki: the convent of Visby in his native island of Gotland. S\u00f6derstr\u00f6m, 1946. In 1279, while staying a month in Cologne, he again paid several visits to Christina. Having become prior in Olsen, T. D. \u201cPetrus de Dacia.\u201d New Catholic Encyclopedia. New Visby, he was also appointed socius of the provincial York: McGraw-Hill, 1967, vol. 11, p. 247. for the General Chapter at Bordeaux in summer 1287. On his way home from Bordeaux, Petrus met Christina Lindroth. Sten. Svensk l\u00e4rdomshistoria. 4 vols. Stockholm: at Stommeln for the last time. In a letter of September Norstedt, 1975\u201381. vol. 1, pp. 64\u201371. 9, 1289, Christina was informed that Petrus had died during the Lent of that year. Nieveler, Peter. Codex luliacensis. Christina von Stommeln und Petrus von Dacien, ihr Leben und Nachleben in Geschichte. Two literary works in Latin by Petrus are known, Kunst und Literatur. Ver\u00f6ffentlichungen des Bisch\u00f6flichen both in the Codex Juliacensis from about 1300, now in Di\u00f6zesanarchivsAachen, 34. M\u00f6nchengladbach: K\u00fchlen, 1975. the Bisch\u00f6fliches Di\u00f6zesanarchiv in Aachen. In the Vita Christinae Stumbelensis (\u201cLife of Christina of Stom- Asztalos, Monika. \u201cLes lettres de direction et les sermons \u00e9pis- meln\u201d), Petrus describes his visits to Stommeln and tolaires de Pierre de Dacie.\u201d In The Editing of Theological his strong emotional reactions to Christina\u2019s mystical and Philosophical Texts from the Middle Ages: Acts of the experiences. The book also contains their correspon- Conference Arranged by the Department of Classical Lan- dence and a biography of Christina written by the par- guages, University of Stockholm, 29\u201331 August 1984. Ada ish priest of Stommeln, who used to read and translate Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Studia Latina Stockholmiensia, Petrus\u2019s letters to Christina and write down her letters. 30. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1986, pp. 161\u201384. Den Svenska Litteraturen. 1: Fr\u00e5n fom\u00fcd till frihetsid 800\u20131718. Stockholm: Bonnier, 1987, pp. 66\u201371. Eva Odelman 524","PHILAGATHUS OF CERAMI PHILAGATHUS OF CERAMI (d. 1154 or later) Further Reading Greek prose in medieval Italy reaches a high point with Editions the sermons of the twelfth-century Siculo-Calabrian monk Philagathus. He is conventionally called \u201cof Ce- Caruso, Stefano, ed. \u201cLe tre omilie inedite \u2018Per la domenica delle rami,\u201d although it is not clear whether the designation palme\u2019 di Filagato da Cerami.\u201d Epeter\u00ecs Hetaire\u00edas Byzantin\u00f4n Keram\u00edtes refers to Cerami in Sicily or to some other Spoud\u00f4n, 41, 1974, pp. 109\u2013127. place, or is instead a classicizing version of the demotic surname Kerame\u00fcs (\u201cPotter\u201d). Until fairly recently, he Patrologia Graeca, 132, cols. 9\u20131078. (Scorso\u2019s edition and Latin was known as Theophanes Cerameus, thanks to a misat- translation of sixty-two sermons.) tribution in one branch of a later Byzantine redaction that converted his sermon collection into a homiliary Rossi Taibbi, Giuseppe, ed. Filagato da Cerami: Omelie per i organized according to the liturgical calendar, and his vangeli domenicali e le feste di tutto l\u2019anno, Vol. 1, Omelie work was at times presented as that of a ninth- or elev- per le feste fisse, Istituto siciliano di studi bizantini e neoel- enth-century writer into which more recent material had lenici. Testi, 11. Palermo: Istituto Siciliano di Studi Bizantini been inserted. In his Italo-Greek manuscripts he is styled e Neoetenici, 1969. \u201cthe philosopher\u201d (and therefore is sometimes so identi- fied in library catalogs) and is also often called Philippus Translations (perhaps his baptismal name) rather than Philagathus. Of his approximately ninety surviving sermons, only thirty- Ga\u00b8spar, Cristian-Nicolae. \u201cPraising the Stylite in Southern Italy: eight have a modern critical edition; the remainder either Philagathos of Cerami on Saint Symeon the Stylite.\u201d Annu- must be read in texts descended from the very defective ario dell\u2019Istituto Romeno di Cultura e Ricerca Umanistica, editio princeps of Francesco Scorso (1644) or are still 4, 2002, pp. 93\u2013108. unpublished. Even so, these cultured and rhetorically accomplished productions have earned a considerable Lavagnini, Bruno. Profilo di Filagato da Cerami: Con traduzione reputation for artistic excellence. della Omelia XXVII pronunziata dal pulpito della Cappe Palatina in Palermo. Palermo: Accademia Nazionale di Sci- To the extent that they can be localized with certainty, enze, Lettere, e Arti gi\u00e0 del Buongusto, 1992. (Reprinted in Philagathus\u2019s early associations are Calabrian. After Bollettino della Badia Greca di Grottaferrata, n.s., 44, 1990, entering religion at an unidentified church of Saint pp. 231\u2013244, issued in 1993.) Andrew, he trained at the Nea Hodegetria monastery near Rossano, later known as the Pat\u00edr or the Patirion, Manuscript for whose founder, Bartholomew of Simeri (d. 1130), he gave a commemorative sermon. Philagathus preached Rossi Taibbi, Giuseppe. Sulla tradizione manoscritta dell\u2019omiliario in Rossano proper; in Reggio; and in Sicily, at Messina, di Filagato da Cerami. Istituto Siciliano di Studi Bizantini e Taormina, Troina, and especially Palermo, where at least Neoellenici, Quaderni, 1. Palermo: Istituto Siciliano di Studi one of his sermons was delivered before King Roger Bizantini e Neoellenici, 1965. II in the predecessor of today\u2019s cathedral. His sermon in Roger\u2019s Palatine Chapel (seemingly after 1140 but Critical Studies sometimes assigned to the chapel\u2019s consecration in 1140) contains the earliest extended description of this Acconcia Longo, Augusta. \u201cFilippo il filosofo a Costantinopoli.\u201d renowned monument. Rivista di Studi Bizantini e Neoellenici, n.s., 28, 1991, pp. 3\u201321. Although Philagathus has been called a court preacher, it might be more accurate to call him a preacher whose Foti, Maria Bianca. \u201cCulture e scrittura nelle chiese e nei mon- distinction led to appearances at court. The venues of asteri italo-greci.\u201d In Civilt\u00e0 del Mezzogiorno d\u2019Italia: Libro, most of his sermons are not fully known. He was still scrittura, documento in et\u00e0 normanno-sveva\u2014Atti del con- active during the reign of William I (1154\u20131166). An vegno dell\u2019Associazione Italiana dei Paleografi e Diplomatisti allegorical commentary on the Aethiopica of Heliodorus (Napoli\u2013Badia di Cava dei Tirreni, 14\u201318 ottobre 1991), ed. (an ancient Greek novel used by Philagathus in at least Filippo D\u2019Oria. Cultura Scritta e Memoria Storica, 1. Salerno: one sermon), recently thought to be his, has now been Carlone, 1994, pp. 41\u201376. (See especially pp. 65\u201367.) shown to be much older. The attributions to him of the anonymous Life of Bartholomew of Simeri, of a gram- Garzya, Antonio. \u201cPer la cultura politica nella Sicilia greconor- matical textbook now lost, and of a verse introduction manna.\u201d In Percorsi e tramiti di cultura. Naples: M. D\u2019Auria, to the fables of Symeon Seth (one form of the Greek 1997, pp. 241\u2013247. \u201cmirror of princes\u201d Stephanites and Ichnelates) are all very dubious. Houben, Hubert. \u201cLa predicazione.\u201d In Strumenti, tempi, e luoghi di communicazione nel Mezzogiorno normanno-svevo: Atti delle undecime Giornate normanno-sveve, Bari, 26\u201329 ot- tobre 1993, ed. Giosu\u00e8 Musca and Vito Sivo. Bari: Dedalo, 1995, pp. 253\u2013273. Kitzinger, Ernst. \u201cThe Date of Philagathos\u2019 Homily for the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul.\u201d In Byzantino-Sicula, Vol. 2, Miscellanea di scritti in memoria di Giuseppe Rossi Taibbi. Istituto Siciliano di Studi Bizantini e Neoellenici, Quaderni, 8. Palermo: Istituto Siciliano di Studi Bizantini e Neoellenici, 1975, pp. 301\u2013306. Luc\u00e0, Santo. \u201cI Normanni e la \u2018ritmica\u2019 del sec. XII.\u201d Archivio Storico per la Calabria e la Lucania, 60, 1993, pp. 1\u201391. (See especially pp. 69\u201379, 86\u201387.) Perria, Lidia. \u201cLa clausola ritmica nella prosa di Filagato da Ce- rami.\u201d Jahrbuch der \u00f6sterreichischen Byzantinistik, 32 (Akten des XVI. Internationalen Byzantinistenkongress, Wien, 4.\u20139. Oktober 1981), part 3, 1982, pp. 365\u2013373. John B. Dillon 525","PHILIP II AUGUSTUS French monarchy became more a practical than a theo- retical concept. His domain, larger than the fief of any PHILIP II AUGUSTUS vassal, was to remain the dominant power base in France (1165\u20131223) in succeeding generations. As Luchaire wrote, at Philip\u2019s death \u201cthe [Capetian] dynasty was solidly established, King of France, 1180\u20131223. Philip II was the first great and France founded.\u201d architect of the medieval French monarchy. Building upon the accomplishments of Louis VI and Louis VII, See also Henry II; John he began the process of converting feudal into national monarchy, expanding the crown\u2019s political and geo- Further Reading graphical influence, by his death in 1223, far beyond what they had been at his accession in 1180. Baldwin, John W. The Government of Philip Augustus. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986. As was common in the case of kings ascending as children to the throne, Philip was initially dominated by Bautier, Robert-Henri, ed. La France de Philippe Auguste:le powerful relatives, in his case the influential and wealthy temps des mutations. Paris: CNRS, 1982. ruling family of Champagne. His early struggle to as- sert royal influence was supported by his father\u2019s rival, Bordonove, Georges. Philippe Auguste. Paris; Pygmalion, Henry II of England, who denied himself the pleasure of 1983. taking advantage of the fifteen-year-old king\u2019s apparent weakness. A few years later, Henry probably wished that Fawtier, Robert. The Capetian Kings of France. London: St. he had not been so honorable, since Philip utilized the Martin, 1960. traditional patricidal conflict traditional in the Angevin family against his former protector. This policy saw Hallam, Elizabeth. Capetian France, 987\u20131328. London: Long- the French king triumphant over his father\u2019s ancient man, 1980. adversary and his sons by 1204, when the luckless King John saw the Angevin territories in France dissolve. By James W. Alexander the end of his reign, Philip II had increased his territory nearly fourfold. The English loss of territory north of the PHILIP III THE BOLD Loire augmented the French ruler\u2019s lands, but he also (1245\u20131285) added to his acquisitions by the forfeitures of contuma- cious vassals, by political duplicity, by cleverly arranged King of France, 1270\u201385. As a boy, Philip appears to marriages, and by manipulation of the confusion over have been easygoing and easily influenced, especially land possession arising from the Albigensian Crusade. by his mother, Marguerite of Provence. As a king, he Philip Augustus was not a great military leader; he was was dominated at the outset by the counsels of Pierre an astute politician. de la Broce, a former adviser of his father, Louis IX. Later, he came under the influence of his uncle Charles, Philip was the founder of the centralized bureaucratic count of Anjou. Philip became king while on crusade state. He chose bourgeois administrators, as well as men to Tunis with his father, who died of illness during the from the lower nobility, to run his kingdom, men whose siege of the city. Philip is the first king whose regnal primary loyalty was to their king rather than to their class years begin with the burial of his predecessor rather than or to their families. Their offices were remunerated by the coronation of the new king, which in his case was salary rather than farmed. Philip used feudal rights to delayed until 1271. enhance his royal position; in his reign, the authority of the king began shifting slowly from his rights exercised Although most scholars regard Philip\u2019s reign as as feudal suzerain to his rights exercised as sovereign; a hiatus in the development of the monarchy, it was he was becoming less a private, feudal lord than a public marked by important events. The death, childless, of figure of authority. This obviously contributed to a de- his uncle and aunt, Alphonse of Poitiers and Jeanne cline in the functional importance of the feudal structure de Toulouse, in 1271 on the way back from crusade (it was never a feudal system), as did the growing com- brought their vast holdings in the south of France into mutation of lord-vassal relationships from mutually ex- the royal domain despite the importunities of Charles changed personal obligations into money payments. The of Anjou, who coveted the fiefs. The acquisition of administrators of Philip\u2019s domains, baillis and pr\u00e9v\u00f4ts, these lands by the crown sealed the ascendancy of the were essentially estate managers, men with wide-rang- French in Languedoc. Philip carried on an active foreign ing fiscal, judicial, military, and other responsibilities. policy. With the support of Charles of Anjou, he briefly Philip\u2019s financial administration improved greatly, his put forward his candidacy to the imperial throne. He policies based upon the model of his newly conquered made efforts to draw neighboring German principali- province, Normandy. He also made Paris what we mod- ties under French influence. He aggressively defended erns would call the capital of France. Capetian family interests in Castile and Aragon. And he intervened with military success in Navarre when Philip Augustus was, then, the monarch under whom a succession crisis there in the mid-1270s threatened French interests. Philip was drawn into war in Spain again toward 526","the end of his reign when the Aragonese supported the PHILIP IV THE FAIR rebellion of the Sicilians against Charles of Anjou (the Sicilian Vespers, 1282). Charles\u2019s pleas for support and full legitimacy and the glory of the Capetian house, he the blessing of the pope led to the French crusade against encouraged the reinterpretation of the Capetians\u2019 his- Aragon, an ill-fated expedition across the Pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es in tory. Upholding the highest standards of morality and 1285, in which the French were routed. During the publicizing his own scrupulosity, in 1314 he presided retreat, Philip III himself died. over the trial and execution of two knights charged with adultery with his own daughters-in-law, thus casting Philip was married twice: first (1262) to Isabella of doubt on the legitimacy of his grandchildren. Aragon, who died in 1271 on the return from the crusade to Tunis. She was the mother of Philip\u2019s son and succes- Born between April and June 1268, while Louis sor, Philip IV the Fair. In 1274, Philip III married Marie IX was still ruling, Philip, second son of Philip III the de Brabant, whose party at court was responsible for Bold and Isabella of Aragon (d. 1271), had a troubled bringing an end to the influence of Pierre de la Broce; childhood, dominated by the scandals that erupted at charged with treason, he was executed in 1278. Philip court after his father\u2019s marriage in 1274 to Marie de the Fair seems always to have had a strong dislike of Ma- Brabant, suspected of poisoning Philip\u2019s elder brother, rie, about whom Pierre had spread ugly rumors. These who died in 1276, shortly before the death of his third included allegations that she and her party wanted to brother. In 1284, Philip was knighted and married to displace the children of her husband\u2019s first marriage by Jeanne, heiress of Champagne and Navarre; he became her own in the line of succession and that she had even king in 1285 after his father\u2019s death on a crusade against poisoned Philip IV\u2019s older brother as part of her plan. Aragon. Having extricated himself from the ill-fated No such conspiracy was ever proved, however, and the venture, Philip avoided conflict for nine years, but in succession proceeded smoothly even under the difficult 1294 he precipitated war against the mighty Edward I of circumstances of the crusade against Aragon. England, duke of Aquitaine\/Guyenne. Settled in 1303, the fruitless episode strained the kingdom\u2019s finances See also Louis IX and led to manipulation of the currency. It resulted in the marriages of Philip\u2019s sister Marguerite to Edward Further Reading in 1299 and of his daughter Isabella to Edward II in 1308; the latter union would give Edward III grounds for Langlois, Charles-Victor. Le r\u00e9gne de Philippe III le Hardi. Paris: claiming the throne of France. The war also initiated a Hachette, 1887. conflict with the Flemings, Edward I\u2019s allies and Philip\u2019s subjects, which, settled in 1305, broke out again in 1312 William Chester Jordan because of the harsh peace terms Philip imposed. Cleri- cal taxation imposed for the war occasioned Boniface PHILIP IV THE FAIR VIII\u2019s controversial bull Clericis laicos in 1296. From (1268\u2013314) then until Boniface\u2019s death in 1303, Philip and the pope were locked in sporadic but bitter struggles involving King of France, 1285\u20131314. Philip expanded royal pow- the limits of secular jurisdiction over ecclesiastics. In er within the kingdom and dominated the ecclesiastical the spring of 1303, Philip presided over assemblies in and secular affairs of western Europe. The grandson of Paris that charged Boniface with heresy and immorality; St. Louis, whose canonization he achieved in 1297, he in September 1303, the pope was violently attacked in imitated and attempted to surpass Louis\u2019s achievements. Anagni when Philip\u2019s minister Guillaume de Nogaret Served devotedly by a series of powerful ministers, he summoned him to submit to the judgment of a council. imposed his own stamp on governmental policies, insti- Clement V, the Gascon-born cardinal who became pope tuting widespread consultation of his subjects, issuing in 1305, was more to the king\u2019s liking; he granted Philip a host of reform charters, canceling and returning taxes many privileges and in 1311 accepted the suppression of when the causes that prompted them ceased, and subor- the Knights Templar, the crusading order whose assets dinating to his authority the dukes of Aquitaine\/Guyenne Philip had seized in 1307, again because he believed (also kings of England) and the counts of Flanders. them guilty of heresy and immorality. Attentive to matters of conscience and believing in his role as God\u2019s minister, he upheld Christian orthodoxy Philip failed to achieve some of his ambitions. He against Pope Boniface VIII and the Knights Templar, never succeeded in placing a relative on the imperial appealing to a general council against the pope and de- throne; his visionary scheme after his wife\u2019s death in stroying the Templars; he obtained papal bulls forgiving 1305 to become ruler of the Holy Land was abortive. The him for sins he feared he might commit; he magnified power he exercised within the kingdom led, at the end the importance of the royal power to cure; in 1306, he of his reign, to the formation of leagues of disgruntled expelled the Jews from France. Anxious to establish the subjects protesting his fiscal and monetary policies and demanding the restoration of old customs; his eldest son and successor, Louis X (r. 1314\u201316), issued numerous 527","PHILIP IV THE FAIR to cause him trouble was enhanced by the existence of other descendants of St. Louis who might claim the charters to pacify them, and he sacrificed Philip\u2019s min- French throne. Philip IV the Fair, Louis X, and Philip ister Enguerran de Marigny and other officials to their V all had grandsons who were disqualified by the deci- princely enemies at court. Philip used his three sons sion to exclude princes whose claims were through their and his daughter to advance his own goals. Isabella mothers. Two of these, Edward III of England and the married Edward II of England; Louis married Margue- future Charles II of Navarre (r. 1349\u201387), presented rite, daughter of the duke of Burgundy; Philip\u2019s wife, malcontents with attractive alternatives to whom to give Jeanne, brought to the crown the county of Burgundy; allegiance. To avoid alienating the count of Flanders and Jeanne\u2019s mother, Mahaut of Artois, offered a dowry duke of Burgundy, Philip had to rule against his friend of 100,000 livres to persuade Philip to accept another and cousin Robert of Artois in the disputed succession daughter, Blanche, as the wife of his youngest son, the to Artois, and Robert then gave his allegiance to Edward future Charles IV. The imprisonment of Marguerite and III. When Philip ruled in favor of his nephew Charles Blanche for adultery in 1314 was the first of a series of de Blois in the disputed Breton succession (1341), the tragedies suffered by Philip\u2019s direct descendants. Be- opposing claimant, Jean de Montfort, also turned to cause of the death of Louis X\u2019s posthumous son, John Edward. Many nobles of the north and west felt more I, the product of a second marriage, the throne passed closely tied to England than to the Valois, and they to Philip V (r. 1316\u201322); because he left no male heir, disliked Philip\u2019s queen, Jeanne of Burgundy. Perhaps he was succeeded by Charles IV (r. 1322\u201328), at whose because of her influence, Philip tended to distrust this death without male heir the rule of the direct Capetians important regional aristocracy and to draw a dispropor- ended and the crown passed to the house of Valois. tionately large number of his advisers from regions like Auvergne and Burgundy. See also Boniface VIII, Pope; Clement V, Pope; Edward I; Jeanne of Navarre Amid growing discontent in the north and west, Philip\u2019s relations with England steadily deteriorated. Further Reading The two monarchies could not resolve differences over Aquitaine, and Philip supported Scottish opposition to Bautier, Robert-Henri. \u201cDiplomatique et histoire politique: ce que Edward, while the latter built up an anti-Valois coalition la critique diplomatique nous apprend sur la personnalit\u00e9 de in the Low Countries. In 1337, the Hundred Years\u2019 War Philippe le Bel.\u201d Revue historique 259 (1978): 3\u201327. began, with the first years marked by expensive prepara- tions and little military action. Edward then defeated the Brown, Elizabeth A.R. The Monarchy of Capetian France and French fleet at Sluys in 1340 and gained a valuable new Royal Ceremonial. London: Variorum, 1991. fighting front the next year with the disputed succession in Brittany. Always short of money, Philip gave great \u2014\u2014. Politics and Institutions in Capetian France. London: power to the leaders of the Chambre des Comptes, whose Variorum, 1991. aggressive fiscal measures did not produce the military success needed to offset the antagonism they caused. Favier, Jean. Philippe le Bel Paris: Fayard, 1978. Strayer, Joseph R. The Reign of Philip the Fair. Princeton: Princ- In 1345, the military situation began to deteriorate seriously. The English victory at Auberoche that autumn eton University Press, 1980. secured important gains in Aquitaine. The next year, Edward III invaded Normandy, threatened Paris, and Elizabeth A.R. Brown then crushed Philip\u2019s army at Cr\u00e9cy. In 1347, the English in Brittany won a major victory at La Roche-Derrien, PHILIP VI (1293\u20131350) while Philip could not save Calais from capitulating to Edward III in August. First Valois king of France, 1328\u201350. The son of Charles of Valois (brother of King Philip IV the Fair) and Mar- At the end of 1347, the Estates General convened guerite, daughter of Charles II of Naples, Philip did not in Paris and demanded governmental reforms before become an important figure until he inherited the coun- endorsing plans for each region to raise large taxes to ties of Valois, Anjou, and Maine from his father in 1325. pay for an effective army. Before this initiative could By that time, the reigning monarch was Philip\u2019s first achieve results, France began to be ravaged by the Black cousin Charles IV, who had no son or surviving brother. Death, which eventually claimed the lives of Philip\u2019s When Charles died at the end of January 1328, he left a queen and daughter-in-law and left government and pregnant queen, and the French magnates named Philip society in disarray. The plague also produced a lull in of Valois regent, with the understanding that he would the war, but when he died in August 1350, Philip left become king if the queen gave birth to a daughter. behind many problems for his son and successor, John II the Good. When a daughter was indeed born on April 1, Philip VI became king. He was crowned at Reims late in May, and then, at the behest of an important supporter, Louis I of Flanders, he led a French army against Flemish rebels and won a resounding victory at Cassel in August. Throughout his reign, Philip VI had to maneuver among conflicting political groupings whose ability 528","See also Edward III; Philip IV the Fair PHILIP THE CHANCELLOR Further Reading of a reforming coalition of royal officials and military commanders, known as the Marmousets. Four years Cazelles, Raymond. La soci\u00e9t\u00e9 politique et la crise de la royaut\u00e9 later, Charles VI\u2019s first attack of mental illness enabled sous Philippe de Valois. Paris: Argences, 1958. the duke of Burgundy to regain his dominant position, which he held for another decade before gradually losing Henneman, John Bell. Royal Taxation in Fourteenth Century power at court to his nephew Louis of Orl\u00e9ns. He died France: The Development of War Financing, 1322\u20131356. near Brussels on April 27, 1404. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971. Besides establishing Burgundian power in the Neth- Viard, Jules. \u201cLa France sous Philippe VI de Valois.\u201d Biblioth\u00e8que erlands, Philip the Bold began the tradition of lavish support for the arts by the Burgundian dukes. He also de l\u2019\u00e9cole des Chartes 59 (1896): 337\u2013402. was the primary organizer of the abortive crusade of \u2014\u2014. \u201cItin\u00e9raire de Philippe de Valois.\u201d Biblioth\u00e8que de l\u2019\u00e9cole 1396 led by his eldest son, John, count of Nevers. His great achievements were to a large degree accomplished des Chartes 74 (1913): 74\u2013128,524\u201392; 84 (1923): 166\u201370. at the expense of the French taxpayers, but he gave his native land nearly twenty years of statesmanlike, if John Bell Henneman, Jr. sometimes self-serving, leadership. PHILIP THE BOLD (1342\u20131404) See also Charles V the Wise; Charles VI The first of the Valois dukes of Burgundy, Philip the Bold Further Reading was the fourth son of King John II of France and Bonne de Luxembourg. Born at Pontoise on January 17, 1342, Nieuwenhuysen, Andr\u00e9e van. Les finances du duc deBour- he fought beside his father at the age of fourteen and gogne Philippe le Hardi (1384\u20131404). Brussels: \u00c9ditions de was captured with him at the Battle of Poitiers (1356). l\u2019Universit\u00e9 de Bruxelles, 1984. After he and the king secured release in 1360, he be- came, duke of Touraine, but he surrendered this duchy Palmer, John J.N. England, France and Christendom, 1377\u201399. in 1363 when John II made him duke of Burgundy and London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972. first peer of France. In May 1364, the new king, Philip\u2019s brother Charles V, confirmed these titles. Petit, Ernest. Ducs de Bourgogne de la maison de Valois, I: Philippe le Hardi. Paris: Champion, 1909. After complex diplomatic maneuvering, Philip be- came an international figure with his marriage, in 1369, Richard, Jean. Les ducs de Bourgogne et la formation du duch\u00e9 to Marguerite, daughter of the count of Flanders and Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1954. heiress to five counties in northern and eastern France. The deaths of her grandmother (1382) and father (1384) Vaughan, Richard. Philip the Bold: The Formation of the Burgun- brought these lands to her and Philip, but they needed dian State. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962. military force to secure the most important of them, Flanders, which had been in rebellion since 1379. Mar- John Bell Henneman, Jr. guerite also had a claim to the duchy of Brabant, and in 1385 she and Philip arranged the marriage of their son PHILIP THE CHANCELLOR and daughter to members of the Wittelsbach family that (ca. 1160\/85\u2013ca. 1236) ruled the counties of Hainaut, Holland, and Zeeland, thereby laying the foundations for a Burgundian state An influential theologian, a preacher of considerable that eventually included most of the Low Countries. stature, and an accomplished poet, Philip was born into ecclesiastical circles: he was the illegitimate son of Despite his expanding role in the Netherlands, Philip Archdeacon Philip of Paris and was related through his was above all the most powerful French prince of his father to Bishop \u00c9tienne of Noyon (d. 1211) and Bishop generation. At the death of Charles V in 1380, he led a Pierre of Paris (d. 1218), both of whom favored Philip\u2019s coalition that ousted from the regency his older brother career. After studying theology and law, he appears in Louis of Anjou, and he dominated the French govern- the historical record no later than 1211 as archdeacon ment for the next eight years. He played an active dip- of Noyon. lomatic role in the Anglo-French war, the papal Schism, and imperial politics, and he secured the services of As chancellor of the University of Paris, a position the French royal army to crush the Flemish rebels at that he held from 1217, Philip had authority over the Roosebeke in 1382 and to intimidate his enemy the duke fledgling university. Philip\u2019s chancellorship came in an of Guelders in 1388. era of discontent and controversy, and in a combative move early in his tenure (1219) he excommunicated the Philip supported his projects with vast sums drawn masters and students\u2014a move that Pope Honorius III or- from the receipts of the French crown, as did his brother, dered him to reverse. During the strike initiated in 1229, John, duke of Berry. In the fall of 1388, Charles VI dis- Philip sided with the pope and the university against missed his uncles from the royal council at the urging William of Auvergne, bishop of Paris, and Blanche of Castile, regent during Louis IX\u2019s minority. The papal bull Parens scientiarum of Gregory IX ended the uni- 529","PHILIP THE CHANCELLOR Wicki, Nikolaus. \u201cLa pecia dans la tradition manuscrite de la Summa de bono de Philippe le Chancelier.\u201d In The Editing of versity strike in 1231. Not long after Philip\u2019s death, Theological and Philosophical Texts from the Middle Ages, Henri d\u2019Andeli wrote a Dit du chancelier Philippe, in ed. Monika Asztalos. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, which he is associated with jongleurs, chansons, and 1986, pp. 93\u2013104. vielle playing. Mark Zier\/Sandra Pinegar As a master of theology, Philip composed a treatise on moral theology, the Summa de bono, that had consider- PHILIP THE GOOD (1396\u20131467) able influence on the earliest generation of Franciscan masters. It was organized into two main parts, De bono Duke of Burgundy, 1419\u201367. The son and successor naturae and De bono gratiae, with the latter subdivided of John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy and count of into three: gratia gratum faciens, gratia gratis data, Flanders, Philip was twenty-three years old when the gratia virtutum (both theological and cardinal). Philip is assassination of his father in 1419 made him the mighti- also credited with 723 sermons, which reveal a preacher est peer of France and the most important prince of the vigorously calling both the clergy and the laity to a just Low Countries. His reign of forty-seven years brought and holy way of life. prosperity, prestige, and territorial expansion to his lands. He guided the ill-fated Burgundian state to the Of the fifty-eight monophonic conductus attributed peak of its power, but its greatness, dependant on the to Philip, at least twenty-one texts are confirmed as his. weakness of the French monarchy, dissipated after the Angelus ad virginem was made famous by Chaucer: in end of the Hundred Years\u2019 War. The Miller\u2019s Tale, the scholarly but impoverished cleric Nicholas sings it. Medieval sources ascribe nine poly- An astute diplomat and judicious in the use of force, phonic conductus to Philip, and among four possible Philip sought to overcome ducal Burgundy\u2019s status as textings of conductus caudae at least Bullia fulminante a French apanage by enmeshing it in an independent (and its contrafact Veste nuptiali) and Minor natu filiu polity in the territories between France and Germany. definitely can be counted as his; Anima lugi lacrima and The Treaty of Troyes (1420) allied him with Henry V Crucifigat omnes (which has two contrafacts: Mundum of England, secured his French holdings, and allowed renovavit and Curritur ad vocem) are suspected of also him to concentrate on the Low Countries. His second being his. He penned the four known tropes to P\u00e9rotin\u2019s (1422) and third (1430) marriages secured political allies two great organa quadrupla: Vide prophecie, Homo cum and territorial claims. Conquests of Holland (1425\u201333) mandato dato, De Stephani roseo sanguine, and Adesse and Luxembourg (1443), and the peaceful acquisitions festina. Philip and P\u00e9rotin appear to have known one of Namur (1420) and Brabant (1430) doubled the size another and may have collaborated. Since so many of of his lands. Philip eventually sought the crown of a Philip\u2019s texts were tropes or contrafacts for music that restored Lotharingia from the emperor Frederick III in already had been composed, it would seem that he was 1447. His failure to obtain a crown had no immediate not a composer himself. Although his defense of ac- political consequences, but it foreshadowed the doom of cumulating benefices earned him the displeasure of the the Burgundian polity, which remained an overextended Dominicans, he remained a friend of the Franciscans Franco-imperial principality in an age of emerging sov- throughout his life and was buried in their church. ereign states. Within France, Philip provided minimal support for the government of Henry VI of England See also Blanche of Castile; Chaucer, Geoffrey; and later realigned himself with Charles VII in 1435 P\u00e9rotin (Treaty of Arras). Fearing a revitalized monarchy, Philip abstained from the decisive campaigns of the Hundred Further Reading Years\u2019 War and sheltered the fugitive dauphin after 1456. The failure of such efforts became manifest when Dreves, Guido Maria, ed. Lateinische Hymnendichter des Mit- his son, the future Charles the Bold, assumed control telalters. Leipzig: Reisland, 1907. Analecta hymnica medii of Burgundy in 1464 and launched the Guerre du bien aevi. Vol. 50, pp. 528\u201332. publique against Louis XI. Philip\u2019s rule thus ended as it began, with Valois France and Valois Burgundy Paine, Thomas. Associa tecum in patria: A Newly Identified inextricably locked in mortal conflict. Organum Trope by Philip the Chancellor.\u201d Journal of the American Musicological Society 39 (1986): 233\u201354. Philip\u2019s most celebrated achievement was to make chivalric culture an instrument of policy. The creation of Principe, Walter H. The Theology of the Hypostatic Union in the the Order of the Golden Fleece in 1430 provided a diplo- Early Thirteenth Century, IV: Philip the Chancellor\u2019s Theol- matic tool linking the nobility of his disparate territories ogy of the Hypostatic Union. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of and precluding their affiliation with any other prince. Mediaeval Studies, 1975. Even such ostentatious festivals as the Pheasant Banquet Steiner, Ruth. \u201cSome Monophonic Songs Composed Around 1200.\u201d Musical Quarterly 52 (1966): 56\u201370. Wright, Craig. Music and Ceremony at Notre Dame of Paris 500\u20131550. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp. 249\u201399. 530","in 1454 had political value, for through such devices the PHILIPPE DE THA\u00dcN prestige of the Valois dukes reached its zenith. Philip himself was a model of late-medieval chivalry: hand- names of the days and the months. He twice uses the some, courageous, pious, self-indulgent, extravagant. year 1113 as an example for computing, once implying He maintained mistresses and bastards throughout his that it is the current year; in any case, the Cumpoz was lands yet made heartfelt, albeit unfulfilled, promises to dedicated before Eudo\u2019s death in 1120, for he is referred go on crusade. He is remembered as \u201cthe Good\u201d above to as though still alive. all for the talented artists who gave him the accolade and immortalized Burgundy in tapestries, the paintings of The Bestiaire (ca. 1125) is a \u201cBook of Nature\u201d divided van Eyck, and literature ranging from the Cent nouvelles into three sections: land animals and sea creatures, birds, nouvelles to the histories of Chastellain. He may seem and precious gems; it draws on traditional bestiary mate- less successful in retrospect than he did at the time, but rial from ancient myth and biblical sources. An article Burgundy was a phantasm and Philip sustained it the on a creature or stone generally opens with a physical best of all his line. description, often incorporating drawings with the text, followed by discussion of specific properties or habits. See also Bedford, John Duke of; Charles VII; Allegorical commentary derived from the descriptive Charles the Bold material then demonstrates the revelation of God in the natural world. The articles in the first two sections are Further Reading arranged hierarchically, from the \u201ckings\u201d of each species (the lion, the eagle), which signify Christ, to the \u201clower\u201d Bonenfant, Paul. Philippe le Bon. Brussels: La Renaissance du (land-bound birds, and fish), which refer to Satan; pre- Livre, 1955. cious gems, beginning with their \u201cking,\u201d the diamond, are associated with the powers of good. The Bestiaire is Cartellieri, Otto. The Court of Burgundy: Studies in the History dedicated to Adeliza (Aaliz de Louvain), whom Henry of Civilization. New York: Askell House, 1970. I married in 1121; she retained the title of queen four years after Henry\u2019s death in 1135. Scholars tend to date Huizinga, Johan. The Waningofthe Middle Ages: A Study of the the Bestiaire from early in Adeliza\u2019s marriage because of Forms of Life, Thought and Art in France and the Netherlands the date of the Cumpoz. One manuscript of the Bestiaire in the Dawn of the Renaissance. London: Arnold, 1924. bears a rededication to Eleanor of Aquitaine, Henry II\u2019s queen, written after 1154. Vaughn, Richard. Philip the Good: The Apogee of Burgundy. London: Longman, 1970. The anonymous Livre de Sibile (1135\u201354), dedicated to the empress Matilda, Henry I\u2019s daughter, is a book \u2014\u2014. Valois Burgundy. London: Lane, 1975. of prophecies. Authorship has been ascribed to Philippe primarily because the text bears striking linguistic and Paul D. Solon stylistic resemblances to the signed works; in addition, personal content in the dedication parallels information PHILIPPE DE THA\u00dcN found in the rededication of the Bestiaire to Eleanor of (fl. late llth\u2013early 12th c) Aquitaine. On the basis of less convincing evidence, two early Anglo-Norman lapidaries, the Alphabetical Author of the earliest surviving scientific works in and the Apocalyptic, an Anglo-Norman allegorical French. Philippe\u2019s Anglo-Norman dialect, which he Desputeisun del cors e de l\u2019arme, and a geographical helped establish as a literary medium, probably indicates treatise, Les Divisiuns del mund, have also been attrib- that he was born in England, but he was of continental uted to Philippe. parentage originating in Thaon in lower Normandy, 13 miles northwest of Caen. His Cumpoz (probably 1113) See also Eleanor of Aquitaine, Henry I is dedicated to an uncle, Humphrey (Honfroi) of Thaon, chaplain to Eudo Fitz-Hubert, also known as Eudo Dapi- Further Reading fer, steward of Henry I of England, whose royal court was a center of learned activity. Philippe\u2019s two signed Philippe de Tha\u00fcn. Le bestiaire de Philippe de Tha\u00fcn, ed. works, the Cumpoz and the Bestiaire, are in hexasyl- Emanuel Walberg. Paris: Plon, 1900. labic rhymed, occasionally assonanced, couplets, but the Bestiaire ends with an octosyllabic lapidary. Several \u2014\u2014. Li cumpoz, ed. \u00c9mile Mall. Strasbourg, 1873. anonymous works have also been attributed to him. \u2014\u2014. Le livre de Sibile by Philippe de Thaon, ed. Hugh Shields. The Cumpoz (\u201ccomputus\u201d) is a practical treatise on London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1979. the calendar that tells how to predict the dates of Easter Legge, M. Dominica. Anglo-Norman Literature and Its Back- and the movable feasts governed by Easter. The problem is reconciliation of the lunar calendar, which determines ground. Oxford: Clarendon, 1963. the date of Easter by its association with Passover, with McCulloch, Florence. Mediaeval Latin and French Bestiaries. the Julian solar calendar. Along with accurately detailed computational material, Philippe gives free rein to an Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1960. allegorical bent in discussions of the zodiac and the Pickens, Rupert T. \u201cThe Literary Activity of Philippe de Tha\u00fcn.\u201d Romance Notes 12 (1970\u201371): 208\u201312. Shields, Hugh. \u201cPhilippe de Thaon, auteur du Livre de Sibylle?\u201d Romania 85 (1964): 455\u201377. 531","PHILIPPE DE THA\u00dcN by Dante\u2019s literal reading of Pier\u2019s widely admired Eulogy of Frederick, a composition that may have struck \u2014\u2014. \u201cMore Poems by Philippe de Thaon?\u201d In Anglo-Norman Dante as blasphemous and idolatrous. Anniversary Essays, ed. Ian Short. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1993, pp. 337\u201359. One of a pair of busts of bearded males from Frederick\u2019s monumental gate at Capua (the gate was Studer, Paul, and Joan Evans. Anglo-Norman Lapidaries. Paris: demolished in 1557 and the bust is now in the Museo Champion, 1924. Provinciale Campano) is sometimes considered a por- trait of Pier. But it seems unlikely that the Hohenstaufen Rupert T. Pickens regime would have knowingly permitted this showpiece of imperial iconography to retain, in close proximity to PIER DELLA VIGNA (c. 1190\u20131249) the image of Frederick himself, the likeness of a man stigmatized in official documents of the early 1250s as Pier della Vigna (Petrus de Vinea) was born in Capua Petrus proditor (\u201cPier the traitor\u201d). Pier has also been of obscure parentage and became a senior bureaucrat identified as one of the figures in a portrait (now lost) and officer of state under Emperor Frederick II. Pier at the emperor\u2019s palace at Naples, which supposedly had broad and enduring influence as a master of Latin showed him dispensing justice in Frederick\u2019s presence; documentary composition and Latin prose stylistics but this too seems dubious. more generally. Pier was famous in his lifetime as a person of high Pier\u2019s education included the study of law and rheto- culture and as an artist in Latin prose. His production ric, the former probably at the University of Bologna, as a writer falls into several different categories. His and the latter probably at a notarial school in Capua or early official letters match the style of the Roman curia Bologna, since Bologna and Capua were centers for at the time, a style characterized by elaborate patterns this sort of instruction. He entered Frederick\u2019s court of verbal, phonic, and rhythmic ornaments and laden chancery in the early 1220s, became a high-ranking with biblical citations, all intended to convey honor and judge, had major financial responsibilities, and wrote respect for the addressee and a solemn celebration of private letters for Frederick that did not go through the the status quo. The same verbal musicality and allusive chancery. It is thought that his superior skill as a stylist citations of well-known biblical and classical texts are and advocate was immediately recognized and that from evident in letters of consolation, as well as occasional the beginning of his lifelong employment in this milieu pieces such as the famous Eulogy, in which messianic it fell to him to compose the most important and stylisti- proclamations about Frederick are amplified with bibli- cally taxing documents. By 1243, he was protonotary of cal language. After 1225, when the emperor abandoned the imperial court and logothete\u2014a high official with his posture of gratitude toward the papacy and began the functions of chancellor\u2014of the kingdom of Sicily. to focus on what he perceived as conflicts of interest In 1244, he and his colleague (and fellow Campanian) between papacy and empire, the rhetoric of Pier\u2019s letters Thaddeus of Sessa were authorized to decide on all shifts, in certain cases, from persuasion rooted in praise petitions presented to the emperor. Pier was a trusted and affection for the addressee to persuasion based on counselor to Frederick, and Frederick\u2019s spokesman in the points of contention between the parties. The his- many of the emperor\u2019s troubled dealings with the papacy torical circumstances of controversial events become and with the communes of northern Italy. Throughout an integral part of the persuasive strategy. For nearly Frederick\u2019s long dispute with Pope Gregory IX, Pier thirty years, Pier would wage a polemical campaign represented the emperor at the papal court and at the in defense of Frederick II in an attempt to win the sup- courts of foreign princes; shortly before Pope Innocent port of prelates and princes throughout Latin Europe. IV deposed the emperor in 1245, Pier attempted to Ultimately, his choice of rhetorical approaches would intervene on his sovereign\u2019s behalf. always depend on his perception of the intended public and the subject matter discussed in the letter. That Pier used his position to enrich himself and to advance his family is not surprising. But in this regard Although the extent of his personal contribution he does appear to have been excessively grasping and remains controversial, Pier was at least partly respon- thus to have made many enemies. For reasons that are sible for the drafting of Liber Augustalis (1231), the unclear, Frederick had him arrested in Cremona early Latin version of Frederick\u2019s Constitutions of Melfi, a in 1249, and blinded a few months later, probably in the massive law code asserting the absolute authority of the fortress of San Miniato near Pisa. Pier\u2019s death not long prince in his kingdom. The language of its Proemium afterward was believed in some quarters to have been a is richly ornamented and cadenced. Just as the Eulogy suicide, a view shared by Dante. Pier is one of the most appropriates biblical language to glorify the emperor and memorable souls in the Divine Comedy, though he is his court, the Proemium invokes biblical, patristic, and identified only as \u201cthe man who held the double key to Aristotelian phrases, as well as classical Roman legal Frederick\u2019s heart\u201d (Inferno, 13 58\u201359). It seems likely, as Stephany (1982) has argued, that the portrayal and punishment of Pier in the Divine Comedy were provoked 532","phrases, to suggest the universality of imperial rule. PIER DELLA VIGNA Collections of Pier\u2019s documents, to which were added Huillard-Br\u00e9holles, J.-L.-A., ed. Historia diplomatica Friderici some of his personal letters and various writings of his Secundi, 6 vols. Paris: Plon, 1852\u20131861. (Reprint, Turin: correspondents and others, began to be made as early as Bottega d\u2019Erasmo, 1963. Official documents in chronologi- the 1270s and came to be known as the Epistole (Let- cal order.) ters), Dictamina (Formal Communications), or Summa (Treatise) of Pier della Vigna. Circulating in several dif- \u2014\u2014, ed. Vie et correspondance de Pierre de la Vigne, ministre ferent redactions, they served into the fifteenth century de l\u2019Empereur Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric II. Paris: Plon, 1865. (Reprint, Aalen: and beyond as models in rhetorical instruction and were Scientia, 1966. See Latin personal correspondence, pp. used pragmatically in many chanceries. At least 230 289\u2013404; and Eulogy of Frederick, pp. 425\u2013426.) manuscripts are known; their quantity and quality attest to the importance that contemporaries and successive Editions: Italian Writings generations attached to these writings. The Florentine Guelf Brunetto Latini, writing several decades after Macciocca, Gabriella, ed. Poesie volgari di Pier della Vigna. Tesi Pier\u2019s death, commemorates this imperial official as an di Dottorato di Ricerca, Dip. di Studi Romanzi, Universit\u00e0 exemplary orator, and as such, master of Frederick and degli Studi di Roma. Rome: La Sapienza, 1996. of the empire. Panvini, Bruno, ed. Le rime della scuola siciliana. Biblioteca Pier\u2019s other surviving works and possible works in- dell\u2019 Archivum Romanicum, Series 1(65 and 72). Florence: clude two Latin poems in rhythmical quatrains whose L. S. Olschki, 1962\u20131964, Vol. 1, pp. xliii\u2013xlix, 125\u2013130, attribution to Pier, though early, is not certain: one on 412\u2013414, 647. the months of the year and their properties, the other a satire on the mendicants. Most of Pier\u2019s Latin writings \u2014\u2014, ed. Poeti italiani della corte di Federico II, rev. ed. Naples: and the Latin texts associated with him still lack modern Liguori, 1994, pp. 185\u2013192, 259. critical editions. Manuscript Pier is also a minor figure in early Italian literature. He was one of the court poets of the Sicilian school and Schaller, Hans Martin, with Bernhard Vogel. Handschriftenver- is named in the manuscripts as the author of at least eight zeichnis zur Briefsammlung des Petrus de Vinea. Monumenta pieces. Two canzoni and a sonnet (the latter is part of a Germaniae Historica, Hilfsmittel, 18. Hannover: Hahn, 2002. tenzone with Jacopo Mostacci and Giacomo da Lentini) are securely attributed to Pier; a third canzone (Poi tanta Critical Studies caunoscenza) is less certainly his. The modern editor of the Sicilian school corpus, Panvini (1962\u20131964, 1994), Cassell, Anthony K. \u201cPier della Vigna\u2019s Metamorphosis: Iconog- rejects, on a variety of grounds, Pier\u2019s authorship of the raphy and History.\u201d In Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio: Studies in remainder. the Italian Trecento in Honor of Charles S. Singleton, ed. Aldo S. Bernardo and Anthony L. Pellegrini. Medieval and Renais- See also Dante Alighieri; Frederick II sance Texts and Studies, 22. Binghamton, N.Y.: Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies, 1983, pp. 31\u201376. Further Reading Delle Donne, Fulvio. \u201cLo stile della cancelleria di Federico II ed Editions: Latin Writings i presunti influssi arabi.\u201d In Atti dell\u2019Accademia Pontaniana, n.s., 41, 1992, pp. 153\u2013164. B\u00f6hmer, Johann Friedrich, ed. \u201cDie Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter Philipp, Otto IV, Friedrich II, Heinrich (VII), Conrad \u2014\u2014. \u201cLe \u2018Consolationes\u2019 del IV libro del epistolario di Pier IV, Heinrich Raspe, Wilhelm und Richard, 1198\u20131272.\u201d In della Regesta imperii, Vol. 5, ed. Julius Ficker and Eduard Winkel- mann. Innsbruck: Wagner, 1881\u20131901. (Reprint, Hildesheim: Vigna.\u201d Vichiana, 4, 1993, pp. 268\u2013290. Georg Olms, 1971.) \u2014\u2014. \u201cUna perduta raffigurazione federiciana descritta da Casters, Louis. \u201cProse latine attribu\u00e9e \u00e0 Pierre de la Vigne.\u201d Re- Francesco Pipino e la sede della cancelleria imperiale.\u201d Studi vue des Langues Romanes, 32, 1888, pp. 430\u2013452. (Critical Medievali, Series 3, 38, 1997, pp. 737\u2013749. (Reprinted in edition of the satire against the mendicants.) Fulvio Delle Donne. Politica e letteratura nel Mezzogiorno medievale: La cronachistica dei secoli XII-XV. Immagini del Conrad, Hermann, Thea von der Lieck-Buycken, and Wolfgang Medioevo, 4. Salerno: Cadone, 2001, pp. 111\u2013126.) Wagner, eds. Die Konstitutionen Friedrichs II. von Hohen- Di Capua, Francesco. \u201cLo stile della Curia romana e il \u2018cursus\u2019 staufen f\u00fcr sein K\u00f6nigreich Sizilien. Studien und Quellen zur nelle epistole di Pier della Vigna e nei documenti della Can- Welt Kaiser Friedrichs II, 2. Cologne: B\u00f6hlau, 1973. (Edition celleria sveva.\u201d Giornale Italiano di Filologia, 2, 1949, pp. and German translation of Liber Augustalis.) 97\u2013166. (Reprinted in Francesco Di Capua. Scritti minori, Vol 1. New York: Descl\u00e9e, 1958, pp. 500\u2013523.) Holder-Egger, O. \u201cBericht \u00fcber eine Reise nach Italien im Jahre Dilcher, Hermann. Die sizilianische Gesetzgebung Kaiser 1891.\u201d Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft f\u00fcr \u00c4ltere Deutsche Ge- Friedrichs II: Quellen der Constitutionen von Melfi und ihrer schichtskunde, 17, 1892, pp. 461\u2013524. (Poem on the months Novellen. Studien und Quellen zur Welt Kaiser Friedrichs II, 3. of the year, pp. 501\u2013503.) Cologne: B\u00f6hlau, 1975. (See especially pp. 21\u201322, 26\u201327.) Haskins, Charles Homer. \u201cLatin Literature under Frederick II.\u201d In Studies in Mediaeval Culture. Oxford: Clarendon, 1929, pp. 124\u2013147. (Reprint, New York: Frederick Ungar, 1958.) Kantorowicz, Ernst. Frederick the Second, 1194\u20131250, trans. E. O. Lorimer. London: Constable; New York: Smith, 1931. (Reprint, New York: Frederick Ungat, 1957. See especially pp. 293\u2013307, 663\u2013667.) Martin, Janet. \u201cClassicism and Style in Latin Literature.\u201d In Re- naissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century, ed. Robert L. Benson, Giles Constable, and Carol D. Lanham. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982, pp. 537\u2013568. Meredith, Jill. \u201cThe Arch at Capua: The Strategic Use of Spolia and References to the Antique.\u201d In Intellectual Life at the 533","PIER DELLA VIGNA and wardships contrary to custom, despoiling or seizing seigneuries whose lords resisted, and commencing a Court of Frederick II Hohenstaufen, ed. William Tronzo. concerted attack against the privileges of the episcopate. Studies in the History of Art, 44. \u201cWashington, D.C.: National This last action precipitated his excommunication and, Gallery of Art, 1994, pp. 108\u2013126. in retaliation, his expulsion of six of the seven bishops Oldoni, Massimo. \u201cPier della Vigna e Federico.\u201d In Federico II e of Brittany. Although his wife died in 1221, he continued le nuove culture: Atti del XXXI Convegno storico internazio- as guard (custos) and effective ruler of Brittany until his nale, Todi, 9\u201312 ottobre 1994. Atti dei Convegni del Centra son came of age in late 1237. Italiano di Studi sul Basso Medioevo\u2013Accademia Tudertina e del Centro di Studi sulla Spiritualit\u00e0 Medievale, n.s., 8. Knighted in 1209 by Philip II Augustus, Pierre was Spoleto: Centro Italiano di Studi sull\u2019Alto Medioevo, 1995, secure in his position as ruler of Brittany as long as pp. 347\u2013362. Philip, with whom he got along well, continued to reign. Paratore, Ettore. \u201cAlcuni Caratteri dello stile della cancelleria But with the old king\u2019s death in 1223, Pierre became federiciana.\u201d In Atti del Convegno Internazionale di Studi a less trustworthy ally of the new king, Louis VIII (r. Federiciani, 10\u201318 December, 1950: VII Centenario della 1223\u201326), although he did take part in crusading expe- morte di Federico II, Imperatore e re di Sicilia. Palermo: A. ditions against the Albigensian heretics led by Louis Renna, 1952, pp. 283\u2013313. as prince (1219) and king (1226). His emerging lack Schaller, Hans Martin. \u201cZur Entstehung der sogenannten Brief- of devotion to royal policies originated partly from his sammlung des Petrus de Vinea.\u201d Deutsches Archiv f\u00fcr die claims to land in England, claims that made him always Erforschung des Mittelalters, 12, 1956, pp. 114\u2013159. eager to cultivate the Capetians\u2019 traditional enemy, the \u2014\u2014. \u201cDie Kanzlei Kaiser Friedrichs II.: Ihr Personal und Plantagen\u00eats. His own overweening ambition to be the Sprachstil.\u201d Archiv f\u00fcr Diplomatik, 3, 1957, pp. 207\u2013286; 4, preeminent baron in northwest Europe fueled his politi- 1958, pp. 264\u2013327. cal maneuvering. After the death of his first wife, he \u2014\u2014. \u201cL\u2019epistolario di Pier delle Vigne.\u201d In Politica e cultura aspired to the hand of the countess of Flanders in 1226 nell\u2019Italia di Federico II, ed. Sergio Gensini. Collana di Studi and the queen of Cyprus (who had claims in the great fief e Ricerche, Centro di Studi sulla Civilt\u00e0 del Tardo Medioevo, of Champagne) in 1229, only to be thwarted by the king San Miniato, 1. Pisa: Pacini, 1986, pp. 95\u2013111. and the pope, who had their own interests to preserve in \u2014\u2014. \u201cDella Vigna, Pietro.\u201d In Dizionario biografico degli the disposition of the heiresses and their fiefs. He was Italiani, Vol. 37. Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, reduced to marrying a minor baroness, Marguerite de 1989, pp. 776\u2013784. Montaigu, in 1230; and his resentment was strong. He \u2014\u2014. Stauferzeit: Ausgew\u00e4hlte Aufs\u00e4tze. Monumenta Germaniae had already become an open rebel in 1227 because of Historica, Schriften, 38. Hannover: Hahn, 1993. (See espe- the failure of the regent, Blanche of Castile, to submit cially pp. 197\u2013223, 225\u2013270, 463\u2013478.) to his influence or cede the regency of the young Louis Shepard, Laurie. Courting Power: Persuasion and Politics in the IX. He was instrumental in 1229 in attacking the count Early Thirteenth Century. New York: Garland, 1999. of Champagne, a supporter of the regent whose fief Stephany, William A. \u201cPier della Vigna\u2019s Self-Fulfilling Prophe- Pierre coveted. He courted the favor of the English king, cies: The Eulogy of Frederick II and Inferno 13.\u201d Traditio, 38, received military support and large subsidies from him, 1982, pp. 193\u2013212. and rebelled against the French crown again in 1230\u201331 Wieruszowski, Helene. Politics and Culture in Medieval Spain and still again briefly in 1234. In all of these efforts, his and Italy. Storia e Letteratura, 121. Rome: Edizioni di Storia forces were soundly thrashed, though never completely e Letteratura, 1971. (See especially pp. 432\u2013435, 605\u2013610.) eliminated, by the royal troops. Laurie Shepard and John B. Dillon In November 1237, after his son reached majority and took over control of Brittany, Pierre succeeded in PIERRE MAUCLERC consolidating a small lordship around the nucleus of (ca. 1189\/90\u20131250) his wife\u2019s lands in the Breton-Poitevin march. His sub- sequent career saw him active as a crusader against the Pierre de Dreux (or de Braine), better known as Pierre Muslims, an effort that achieved a reconciliation with Mauclerc, was a member of the distinguished Dreux the papacy (1235) if not with local clerics, whom he family, a cadet branch of the Capetian line. He was a continued to harass whenever he was in a position to do younger son of Louis VII\u2019s nephew Robert II, count so. He served with distinction on the crusade of Thibaut of the small fiefs of Dreux and Braine. Although not de Navarre (1239\u201340) and died of illness and wounds in a landless baron, Pierre\u2019s original endowment of lands 1250 on the return home from St. Louis\u2019s crusade. from his father was small, the villas and manors of F\u00e8re-en-Tardenois, Brie-Comte-Robert, Chilly, and See also Blanche of Castile; Louis IX; Longjumeau. By his marriage in 1212 to Alix, the heir- Philip II Augustus ess of Brittany and claimant to the English honor of Richmond, however, he became titular earl of Richmond and titular duke of Brittany (or count, in the view of French authorities unwilling to acknowledge Brittany\u2019s ducal status). Pierre immediately set about imposing his will on the fiercely independent Breton baronage, exacting reliefs 534","Further Reading PISANO, ANDREA Painter, Sidney. The Scourge of the Clergy: Peter of Dreux, Duke PISANO, ANDREA of Brittany. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1937. (c. 1295\u2013c. 1348 or 1349) William Chester Jordan Andrea Pisano (Andrea di Ugolino di Nino da Pont- edera) is recorded as a sculptor, goldsmith, and capo- PIETRO ABANO (d. 1316) maestro (master of works) of the cathedrals of Florence and Orvieto. Andrea was the son of a notary and is Pietro Abano (Pietro d\u2019Abano) was the most important presumed to have been born in Pontedera, near Pisa. His medical teacher in early fourteenth-century Padua. He reputation rests principally on his designs for the doors was a Lombard by birth, but little is known of his life. of the Baptistery in Florence (signed and dated 1330), In spite of his fame, and the fame he brought his uni- which are considered among the greatest achievements versity, he seems never to have accumulated the wealth of Tuscan Trecento sculpture. In this project, Andrea of such successful teachers and practitioners as Taddeo demonstrated that the direct narrative style and effective Alderotti. Pietro\u2019s most famous book, Conciliator of compositional principles of Giotto\u2019s painting could be the Differences of the Philosophers and Especially the successfully translated into the art of relief sculpture. Physicians, remained in use in universities well into the early modern period. Though nothing is known for certain about Andrea\u2019s formative years, it is thought that he trained as a gold- Pietro received his medical training at the Univer- smith, since the reliefs for the bronze doors, his earliest sity of Paris, where he would have been indoctrinated securely documented commission, exhibit attention to into the highest levels of scholarly debate surround- miniature detail and ornament as well as a high degree ing the natural philosophy of Aristotle and Aristotle\u2019s of competence in working with metal. Given the char- interpreters. He returned to Italy from Paris c. 1306 to acteristics of his securely identifiable oeuvre, it comes teach medicine, philosophy, and astrology at Padua. as no surprise that Andrea was referred to as orefice The Conciliator, which was completed sometime after (goldsmith) in 1335. 1310, shows his Parisian training. The book presents more than 200 disputed questions on the subject of Andrea\u2019s Reliefs for the Baptistery, medical philosophy and attempts to reconcile conflicts Florence (1330\u20131336) between the physiological teachings of Aristotle and the medical teachings of Galen. Pietro apparently was In 1322, the Arte di Calimala (guild of importers and deeply impressed by similar attempts by Averro\u00ebs and exporters of cloth) of Florence, the institution in charge Avicenna, who adopted the Neoplatonic scheme of of the decorative program of the Baptistery, had made the ultimate reconciliation of conflicting philosophical plans for wooden doors covered with gilded metal. By viewpoints. 1329, the project had been revised, and the officials of the Calimala favored a more costly and technically Pietro also distinguished himself as one of the early more challenging option: doors in solid bronze. Andrea translators of Galen\u2019s works from the original Greek into is first recorded in connection with this project in 1330, Latin. Much of his writing examines the importance of but his appointment almost certainly dates from 1329, medical astrology. This interest in astrology, as well as when the Calimala sent a Florentine goldsmith to Pisa his devotion to Averroist teaching, marred his reputation and Venice, which had a tradition of bronze casting, to in some circles. examine examples of bronze doors. Though Andrea\u2019s reliefs carry the date 1330, his work did not end until See also Averro\u00ebs, Abu \u2018L-Wal\u00af\u0131d Muhammad B. late 1335: in 1330\u20131331 he worked on the wax models, Ahmad B. Rushd; Avicenna which were cast in bronze by Venetian craftsmen in the cire perdu method; in 1333 the left door valve was Further Reading installed; and the right wing was not completed until late 1335, owing to problems in the casting. The doors Olivieri, Luigi. Pietro d\u2019Abano e il pensiero neolatino: Filosofia, were dedicated on the feast of John the Baptist (the pa- scienza, e ricerca dell\u2019Aristotele greco tra i secoli XIII e XIV. tron saint of the building and of Florence) in 1336; they Padua: Antenore, 1988. originally adorned the east portal but were subsequently removed to the south portal to make way for Lorenzo Paschetto, Eugenia. Pietro d\u2019Abano, medico e filosofo. Florence: Ghiberti\u2019s work. Vallecchi, 1984. Each wing comprises ten reliefs on the life of John Siraisi, Nancy G. Arts and Sciences at Padua. Toronto: Pontifical the Baptist and four reliefs of virtues; all are set in qua- Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1973. trefoil frames that are, in turn, contained in rectangular fields. The general configuration of Andrea\u2019s doors was \u2014\u2014. Taddeo Alderotti and His Pupils: Two Generations of Ital- ian Medical Learning. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981. Faye Marie Getz 535","PISANO, ANDREA Andrea departed from Giotto\u2019s scheme in adding niches designed to include statuary above these relief cycles. inspired by the Romanesque scheme of Bonanno\u2019s Porta Though the precise nature of Andrea\u2019s contribution is San Ranieri at the cathedral in Pisa and, possibly, the still a matter of scholarly debate, one work generally at- Porta Regia (now destroyed) from the same building. tributed to him is the marble relief Sculpture, which, like The remarkable unity of Andrea\u2019s design, however, de- the style of the bronze reliefs, is characterized by plastic pends on a variety of decorative motifs, which include form, harmonious composition, and attention to detail. lions\u2019 heads that are placed at the corners of each panel, bands of studs and rosettes that unite the lions\u2019 heads, Around 1341, Andrea returned to Pisa, where he and dentiled moldings that frame each of the quatrefoils. maintained a workshop even after 1347, the year he was appointed capomaestro at the cathedral of Orvieto. By The iconographic program of the figural reliefs is 1349, however, Andrea had been replaced, and it is fre- closely related to the mosaic scenes of the life of John the quently assumed either that he died of the plague in 1348 Baptist in the interior of the Baptistery and to frescoes or 1349 or, less probably, that he moved to Florence. The on the same theme by Giotto in the Peruzzi Chapel in family tradition was carried on by Andrea\u2019s sons Nino (fl. Santa Croce (also in Florence). Giotto\u2019s influence is also 1334\u20131360s) and Tommaso (fl. 1363\u20131372), especially reflected in the harmonious balance of the compositions, Nino, who succeeded his rather at Orvieto. Andrea\u2019s in which reliefs are carefully structured into planes; and sons were less interested in the classicizing aspects of his in the classical economy of the narratives, which rely work, and both of them evolved a mainly Gothic formal on the purposeful movements of concentrated groups vocabulary. In the early Quattrocento the suave, lyrical of figures. The technique of applying figures to a plain style of their sculpture was still a force to reckon with, background, a feature of Sienese metalwork of the early as the early work of Jacopo della Quercia demonstrates. Trecento, adds to the solemnity of the compositions. Concessions were, however, made for the occasional See also Giotto di Bondone motif of a doorway, curtain, or canopy; and in five reliefs from the left door valve, landscape is incorporated into Further Reading the designs with great subtlety. The influence of Giotto\u2019s measured style in Andrea\u2019s work is tempered by a debt to Burresi, Mariagiulia, ed. Andrea, Nino, e Tommaso scultori French and Sienese artistic traditions: activated, spirited pisani. Milan: Electa, 1983. drapery forms, which envelope the bodies of Andrea\u2019s dignified figures, introduce a note of grace and elegance Castelnuovo, Enrico. \u201cAndrea Pisano scultore in legno.\u201d In Sacre to the otherwise restrained reliefs. passioni: Scultura lignea a Pisa dal XII al XV secolo, ed. Mariagiulia Burresi. Milan: Morta, 2000, pp. 152\u2013163. That Andrea was at the height of his creative powers when he worked on the doors is clear from the precision Clark, Kenneth, and David Finn. The Florentine Baptistery of the finely chased details of the fire-gilt surfaces. The Doors. Kampala: Uganda Publishing and Advertising Ser- Calimala had, evidently, awarded this difficult com- vices, 1980. mission to a mature and proficient artist, and his work would remain a benchmark for artistic excellence into Garzelli, Annarosa. \u201cAndrea Pisano a Firenze e una \u2018Madonna con the Quattrocento. In fact, when the Calimala set up a il cardellino.\u2019\u201d Antichit\u00e0 Viva, 36(5\u20136), 1997, pp. 49\u201362. competition in 1400\u20131401, the aim was to attract an artist who could work on a second set of bronze doors Kreytenberg, Gert. \u201cAndrea Pisano\u2019s Earliest Works in Marble.\u201d that would follow Andrea\u2019s model and maintain his Burlington Magazine, 122, 1980, pp. 3\u20138. high standards. \u2014\u2014. Andrea Pisano und die toskanische Skulptur des 14. Jah- Andrea as Capomaestro at Florence and rhunderts. Munich: Bruckmann, 1984. Orvieto (1337\u20131348) \u2014\u2014. \u201cEine unbekannte Verk\u00fcndigungsmadonna als \u2018Maria Andrea\u2019s contribution to the decoration of the campanile gravida\u2019 von Andrea Pisano.\u201d In Opere e giorni: Studi su in Florence probably dates from before Giotto\u2019s death mille anni di arte europea dedicati a Max Seidel, ed. Klaus in 1337. Thereafter, Andrea succeeded Giotto as capo- Bergdolt and Giorgio Bonsanti. Venice: Marsilio, 2001, pp. maestro, supervising work on the tower until 1341. He 147\u2013154. proceeded according to his great predecessor\u2019s plans for the lower part of the structure, which included two rows Moskowitz, Anita Fiderer. The Sculpture of Andrea and Nino of reliefs: the lower group, within hexagonal frames, Pisano. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. shows scenes from Genesis and practitioners of the arts, sciences, and works of man; the upper set shows the \u2014\u2014. Italian Gothic Sculpture, c. 1250\u2013c. 1400. Cambridge: seven sacraments, the seven planets, the seven virtues, Cambridge University Press, 2001. and the seven liberal arts in rhomboid frames. However, Paolucci, Antonio. Le porte del Battistero di Firenze alle origini del Rinascimento. Modena: Panini, 1996. Pope-Hennessy, John. Italian Gothic Sculpture, 4th ed. London: Phaidon, 1996 Flavio Boggi PISANO, GIOVANNI (d. by 1319) Giovanni Pisano was the son of Nicola Pisano. Nicola executed the pulpits in the baptistery of Pisa and the ca- thedral of Siena, and Giovanni is first documented as an 536","assistant to his father in the contract of 1265 for the pul- PISANO, GIOVANNI pit in Siena; Giovanni received periodic payments until October 1268, when the pulpit was completed (Bacci program of the facade thus revealed the place of Siena 1926; Carli 1943; Milanesi 1854). Nothing certain is within the total redemptive plan of Christian theology. known of Giovanni\u2019s activities between 1268 and 1278, The initial visual impact of the facade comes from an when his name appears together with Nicola\u2019s on the interplay of its chromatic, plastic, and structural effects: Fontana Maggiore in Perugia. From c. 1285 to c. 1297, the contrasts of color, light, and shadow created by the Giovanni was at work in Siena, where he is mentioned deep jambs, gables, and gallery; the rich tactile plastic- as capomaestro of the project for the cathedral facade ity and rhythmic flow of concave-convex movements in 1290. His name is recorded in Siena in 1314, but in across the lower horizontal band of portals and lunettes; 1319 he is referred to as having died. There is consid- and the stepping back of the upper facade behind the erable uncertainty regarding the attribution of his early gables. The fourteen prophets and sibyls (the originals work or supposed early work on the pulpit in Siena, are in the Museo dell\u2019Opera del Duomo) are dynamic, and elsewhere; passages that convey a greater degree of plastic forms whose gestures and movements embody \u201cspiritual tension\u201d have tended to be ascribed to him, the excitement of their special enlightenment. The dra- whereas those characterized by greater emotional re- matic effect of these figures communicating across real straint have suggested the hand of Nicola. One image on space has no medieval or antique precedent. However, the Fontana Maggiore is almost certainly by Giovanni: the facade abounds in classicizing motifs such as bead a pair of eagles with enormous claws, powerful breasts, and reel patterns, dentils, masks, acanthus foliage, and and twisting bodies that seem to anticipate the griffin on all\u2019antica \u201cpeopled columns\u201d originally flanking the the central support of the pulpit in Pistoia. main portal (Seidel 1968\u20131969, 1975; Venturi 1927). The traceried bifore and trifore and aspects of the figure The facade of the cathedral in Siena was left incom- style are influenced by French precedents, whereas the plete on Giovanni\u2019s departure c. 1297, and scholars alternation of dark and light marble revetment belongs disagree as to whether the present facade reflects his to the Tuscan Romanesque tradition. The facade, then, original plan (Kosegarten 1984) or the upper section is shows a creative synthesis of antique traditions, local a much later design, c. 1370 (Carli 1977; Keller 1937). traditions, and northern Gothic influences\u2013\u2013the last of The program in Siena (unlike the encyclopedic programs these seen also in the undermining of solid surface in of French Gothic cathedrals) is strictly Mariological, favor of perforated mass. and the coherence of its iconography is strong argu- ment for assigning the conception of the entire facade Perhaps as a result of professional difficulties, to a single initial project. From early sources we know Giovanni left Siena c. 1297, when the facade was still that a (lost) Madonna and Child stood in the lunette incomplete (Ayrton 1969). Around this time, or possibly of the central portal flanked by a representative of the earlier, he executed a number of sculptures for the exte- commune swearing an oath of allegiance on behalf rior of the baptistery in Pisa. The remaining fragments of Siena, and by a personification of Siena holding (installed in the Museo dell\u2019Opera del Duomo in Pisa) up a model of the cathedral. Scenes from the lives of are badly weathered, but these swelling, twisting figures Joachim and Anna and from Mary\u2019s childhood adorned burst with inner energy. the lintel of the central portal; the side lunettes and the gable fields contained mosaics representing further Around 1297, Giovanni received his first commis- events from Mary\u2019s life. On platforms projecting from sion for a pulpit, from the parish of Sant\u2019Andrea in the towers and between the lunettes of the lower facade Pistoia. Pistoia was unusually rich in Romanesque were placed prophets and kings of the Old Testament monumental sculptured pulpits, and the proposal for and sibyls and pagan philosophers, i.e., those who in Sant\u2019Andrea insisted that it must not be inferior to one remote times had foreseen the miraculous birth of the made for San Giovanni Fuorcivitas by Guglielmo, a savior. Spread out along the upper facade were evan- student of Nicola Pisano; this suggests that there was gelists and apostles, whose teachings are confirmed a strong sense of rivalry among churches. Giovanni\u2019s by the prophets. Though these were executed in the pulpit is signed and dated 1301 and has an inscription fourteenth century, they too were probably part of the that boasts of a \u201cmastery greater than any seen before\u201d original plan, which envisioned the prophets standing (Pope-Hennessy 1972). This richly carved and elegant like foundations for the New Testament figures above. structure\u2014its parapet poised on Gothic trefoil arches Around the rose window appeared a seated Madonna above slender columns with alternating animal and and Child flanked by half figures representing the figural supports\u2014reveals Giovanni\u2019s debt to Nicola\u2019s genealogy of Christ; scenes from the life of David, an two earlier pulpits, but it also reveals that Giovanni ancestor of Christ, appeared on one of the tendril col- was completely independent in terms of technique, umns that originally flanked the portals. The pictorial composition, and expressiveness. Like Nicola\u2019s pulpit in the baptistery in Pisa, Giovanni\u2019s pulpit in Pistoia is hexagonal and has great structural clarity. But here Giovanni adopts an invention from his father\u2019s pulpit 537","PISANO, GIOVANNI ivory crucifixes\u2014none documented or dated\u2014which are so compellingly close to his images on the pulpits in Siena: the narrative reliefs are flanked by figures. that the attributions seem valid (Seidei 1971). These, All the forms\u2014capitals, figures, narratives\u2014are more too, mark a turning point in the history of the theme in energetic than the corresponding elements in Nicola\u2019s Italy: the relative quietude of Nicola\u2019s representations pulpits. In particular, the lion, griffin, and eagle of the is now often replaced by an aching pathos reminiscent central support are dynamic opposing forces, revolv- of some transalpine examples. ing around the column as hub. Traces of polychromy on the figures as well as remains of the glazed colored In 1302, Giovanni was commissioned to execute a background tesserae give a hint of the original chromatic pulpit for the grand Tuscan Romanesque cathedral of effect. The most stunning aspect of this pulpit, however, Pisa. Because of its location within the vast space of the is the heightened emotional content of the narratives. In duomo\u2014beneath the cupola, near the south transept\u2014it the Annunciation, for instance, the awesome message had to be much larger than the pulpit in Pistoia. Like simultaneously thrusts the Virgin away from Gabriel Nicola\u2019s pulpit in Siena, it is octagonal rather than hex- and magnetically draws the figures together. Expres- agonal. Since each parapet of the bridge leading from siveness combines with naturalism to bring the sacred stairway to balustrade contains a narrative, there are nine figures down to earth: the Christ child in the Nativity relief fields (an unprecedented number), with the first is neither the miniature adult of medieval tradition nor and last narratives (those on the bridge) on flat panels the Herculean child rendered by Nicola but is argu- and the rest on curved slabs. This expanded sequence ably the first realistic newborn infant in the history of includes scenes from the life of John the Baptist: the art (Moskowitz 2001). Giovanni\u2019s compositional and first relief shows the Annunciation to Mary, Mary and expressive powers are nowhere more evident than in Elizabeth in the Visitation, and the Nativity of John the the Massacre of the Innocents. At first the composition Baptist. Parallels and intersections between the life of appears chaotic, but closer examination reveals that the Christ and that of John, his precursor, were emphasized violent movements, deep pockets of shadow, and flash- in the popular apocryphal literature of this period; and ing highlights cohere as a series of zigzag vertical and here they are made eloquently clear because the two horizontal rhythms generated by the forward motion Nativity scenes are at an angle to each other and thus and gesture of King Herod. In a cinematic sequence, can be seen simultaneously. every moment of response is portrayed: to the left of Herod, three women plead before the brutal slaughter; An inscription on the pulpit alludes, in a surprisingly immediately below and at the lower left, several mothers self-conscious way, to difficulties: \u201cThe more I have clutch their infants in terror, shielding the babies with achieved the more hostile injuries have I experienced\u201d their own bodies; at the base, three grieving mothers (Pope-Hennessy 1972). Further along, there is a refer- bend over their dead children. Finally, bringing the eye ence to the \u201cenvy\u201d of others and the \u201csorrow\u201d of the upward toward Herod again, mother and murderer\u2014like sculptor who lacks adequate \u201crecognition.\u201d Vasari was an angel and devil fighting for a soul in the Last Judg- quite critical of this pulpit, and later in the sixteenth ment\u2014battle over the body of a screaming infant who century, when an excuse presented itself, the monu- has already received the death blow. ment was dismantled (Bacci 1926; Moore et al. 1993). After various proposals for reconstruction in the late A quieter, more intimate side of Giovanni\u2019s artistic nineteenth century, the present version was executed by personality is revealed in a series of depictions of the Peleo Bacci in 1926. Responses continue to be mixed. Madonna and child executed throughout his career. In Documents record the names of dozens of individuals Giovanni\u2019s hands, the image is transformed from aus- engaged on this pulpit, and certainly the quality of the terity and rigidity to an expression of intimacy, as can carving is not as uniform as that on the pulpit in Pistoia. be seen in a half-length Madonna from a tympanum of Nevertheless, there are passages of unsurpassed emo- the duomo in Pisa of the mid-1270s (Keller 1942, 13). tional power and inventiveness, such as a saint dragging In several later Madonnas, the child leans toward his a resurrected soul toward Christ; moreover, many of the mother, resting his arm on her shoulder. Finally, in the reliefs reveal a continuing engagement with issues of Prato Madonna, universally attributed to Giovanni (c. spatial illusionism and naturalism in the treatment of 1312), the relationship intensifies, as Mary, smiling, figures and landscape. bends her head down to direct her gaze at her son. In contrast to the regular, planar features of Giovanni\u2019s Both artist and patron must have felt the challenge figure on the tympanum in Pisa, the Prato Madonna is posed by the three earlier pulpits and must have sought characterized by refined features and delicate transitions to surpass them in size, iconographic and sculptural in the soft planes and contours. complexity, and decorative richness. The pulpit in Pisa is, then, a recapitulation, synthesis, and amplification Giovanni\u2019s mastery extended to wood and ivory. He not only of the three others but also of the major innova- executed a beautiful ivory Madonna and child (Ragghi- tions in almost all the earlier monuments by Giovanni anti 1954; Seidel 1972, 1991) and a series of wood and 538","and his father. In addition to the animals and figures PISANO, GIOVANNI supporting the columns\u2014a feature of the earlier pul- pits\u2014here there are unusually complex figural supports: \u2014\u2014. Giovanni Pisano, mit 152 Bildern. Vienna: A. Schroll, in the center the three theological virtues, supported by 1942, p. 66. personifications of the eight liberal arts; Ecclesia sup- ported by the cardinal virtues; statue columns of Saint Kosegarten, Antje. \u201cDie Skulpturen der Pisani am Baptisterium Michael and Hercules (or Samson); and finally a statue von Pisa.\u201d Jahrbuch der Berliner Museen, 10, 1969, pp. column of Christ supported by the evangelists. Not 36\u2013100. only do the curved narrative panels boldly flout visual expectations; below the parapet, where in earlier works Kosegarten, Antje Middeldorf. Sienesische Bildhauer am Duomo we would see round-headed or pointed trefoil arcades, Vecchio. Munich, 1984. we now find, supporting the spandrel reliefs, exuberant classical volutes that seem to anticipate the Baroque and Milanesi, Gaetano. Documenti per la storia dell\u2019arte senese, Vol. are impossible to enclose within the regular geometric 1, Secoli XIII e XIV. Siena: O. Porri, 1854. contours of architectural norms. Here, as in the convex reliefs above, Giovanni must have relished his radical Moore, Henry, Gert Kreytenberg, and Crispino Valenziano. departure from the expected. In its sheer inventiveness of L\u2019ambone del duomo di Pisa, Milan: Franco Maria Ricci, form, and in the range of emotions and the effectiveness 1993. of gestures in the narratives, the pulpit in Pisa represents a tremendous intellectual and artistic achievement. Moskowitz, Anita Fiderer. Italian Gothic Sculpture c. 1250\u2013c. 1400 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. The last major work by Giovanni is the tomb of Mar- garet of Luxembourg, wife of Emperor Henry VII. After Pope-Hennessy, John. Italian Gothic Sculpture. London: Phaidon, her death in 1310, a cult grew up around her remains; 1972. and reports of miracles led to her beatification in 1313, when the tomb was probably commissioned (Seidel \u2014\u2014. \u201cGiovanni Pisano\u2019s Tomb of Empress Margaret: A Critical 1987). Much of the original complex is lost, but a major Reconstruction.\u201d Apollo, September 1987, p. 223. element is extant: an exceptionally fine carving of the empress being raised heavenward by two angels. There Ragghianti, Carlo Lodovico. \u201cLa Madonna eburnea di Giovanni is scholarly debate as to whether the group represents the Pisano.\u201d Critica d\u2019Arte, n.s., 1, 1954, pp. 385\u2013396. elevatio animae, the soul elevated to heaven, fervently desired in the prayers for the dead; or the bodily resur- Scultura dipinta\u2014Maestri di legname e pittori a Siena, 1250\u2013 rection, which should occur only at the last judgment 1450: Siena, Pinacoteca Nazionale, 16 luglio\u201431 dicembre but might be granted earlier to a saint. The visual evi- 1987. Firenze: Centre Di, 1987. dence suggests a bodily resurrection, since Margaret is sufficiently weighty to require the physical exertion of Seidel, Max. \u201cDie Rankens\u00e4ulen der sieneser Domfassade.\u201d Jah- the two angels. Also disputed is whether the tomb was rbuch der Berliner Museen, 11, 1968\u20131969, pp. 80\u2013160. . a wall monument or, like many later saints\u2019 shrines, freestanding (Pope-Hennessy 1987; Seidel 1987). \u2014\u2014. La scultura lignea di Giovanni Pisano. Florence: Edam, 1971. See also Pisano, Nicola \u2014\u2014. \u201cDie Elfenbeinmadonna im Domschatz zu Pisa: Studien Further Reading zur Herkunft und Umbildung Franz\u00f6ischer Formen im Werk Giovanni Pisanos in der Epoche der Pistoieser Kanzel.\u201d Mit- Ayrton, Michael. Giovanni Pisano: Sculptor. London: Thames teilungen des Kunsthistorischen Institutes in Florenz, 16, and Hudson, 1969. 1972, pp. 1\u201350. Bacci, Peleo. La ricostruzione del pergamo di Giovanni Pisano \u2014\u2014. \u201cStudien zur Antikenrezeptionrezeption Nicola Pisanos.\u201d nel Duomo di Pisa. Milan and Rome: Bestetti e Tumminelli, Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Institutes in Florenz, 19, 1926. 1975, pp. 303\u2013392. Beani, Gaetano. La pieve di Sant\u2019 Andrea. Pistoia, 1907, p. 28 \u2014\u2014, ed. Giovanni Pisano a Genova. Genoa: SAGEP, 1987. Carli, Enzo. Il pulpito di Siena. Bergamo: Istituto Italiano d\u2019Arti \u2014\u2014. \u201cUn \u2018Crocifisso\u2019 di Giovanni Pisano a Massa Marittima.\u201d Grafiche, 1943, pp. 4lff. Prospettiva, 62, 1991, pp. 67\u201377. \u2014\u2014. Giovanni Pisano. Pisa: Pacini, 1977. Venturi, Adolfo. Giovanni Pisano: Sein Leben und sein Werk. J\u00e1szai, G\u00e9za. Die Pisaner Domkanzel: Neuer Versuch zur Wieder- Florence: Pantheon, 1927. herstellung ihres urspr\u00fcnglichen Zustandes. Munich, 1968. \u2014\u2014. \u201cGiovanni Pisano.\u201d In Enciclopedia dell\u2019arte medievale, Anita F. Moskowitz Vol. 6. Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1995, pp. PISANO, NICOLA (c. 1220\u20131278 or 1284) 740\u2013754. Keller, Harald. \u201cDie Bauplastik des Sienese Doms.\u201d Kunstgesch. Nicola Pisano is generally assumed to have come from Jahrbuch der Biblioth. Hertziana, 1, 1937. southern Italy and thus from the cultural milieu of Em- peror Frederick II von Hohenstaufen. Nicola may have arrived in Tuscany as early as c. 1245; a series of carv- ings in the upper reaches of the cathedral of Siena have been plausibly attributed to him (Bagnoli 1981). In 1260, Nicola signed and dated the pulpit in the baptistery of Pisa. This pulpit has an unprecedented form; it is a hexagonal freestanding structure whose shape was eminently suited to the centralized plan of the baptistery and echoed Guido da Como\u2019s octagonal font occupying the center of the interior space. Its para- pet and platform are sustained by seven columns; the central column is surrounded by crouching figures and animals, and the six outer columns alternately rest on lions and on the ground. The columns support trilobed archivolts flanked by representations of the virtues and John the Baptist. Above these rises a balustrade with 539","PISANO, NICOLA movement into depth. Furthermore, Nicola has greatly enlarged his emotional range. The crucified Christ in historiated relief fields separated by triple colonettes. Siena, for instance, conveys a pathos lacking in the When the pulpit was in its original state, the creamy earlier relief: hanging with arms stretched in two great marble reliefs framed by reddish colonettes and mold- diagonals, shoulders dislocated, abdomen sunken by the ings, the speckled and patterned supporting columns, weight of the upper torso, and head bent into the chest, the relief backgrounds filled with colored glazed tes- the figure conveys human pain and tragedy, intensifying serae (some of which remain), and the polychromy the meaning of the crucifixion. accenting some parts of the figures produced a richly chromatic effect. In 1267, Nicola completed the Arca di San Do- menico (tomb of Saint Dominic) in the church of San The reliefs embellish five of the six sides (the sixth is Domenico in Bologna. The form and structure of the the entrance to the platform) with scenes from the life of arca became the prototype for an entire class of tombs Christ. In a continuous narrative, the first panel shows through the fifteenth century (Moskowitz 1994). Many the Annunciation, Nativity, Bathing of the Christ Child, changes have been made to this tomb, but originally it and Annunciation to the Shepherds. This is followed by consisted of a freestanding sarcophagus resting atop a panels illustrating the Adoration of the Magi, Presenta- series of supporting statue columns representing friars, tion in the Temple, Crucifixion, and Last Judgment. The archangels, and virtues. The sarcophagus, the only part figures are powerfully plastic and expressive and reveal of the original monument that is still in San Domenico, the sculptor\u2019s study of ancient art and northern Gothic is embellished on all sides with an extensive cycle of art, enabling him to combine the serene majesty of the biographical reliefs rather than the traditional biblical or former with the deeply felt human experience of the symbolic themes. The relief backgrounds show patterns latter. Nicola was not content to present symbolic of red and gold verre \u00e9glomis\u00e9 (much of it restored). narratives of transcendental events; his goal was, rather, The narrative fields are separated by full-length figures to tell a human story in a credible and empathic manner. projecting in high relief, including the Madonna and The work is enriched by naturalistic details; the figures child on one long side, the Redeemer on the other long convey a sense of bulk and weight, and gestures and side, and the four church fathers\u2014Augustine, Ambrose, movements are rendered with convincing naturalism. Jerome, and Gregory\u2014at the corners of the sarcophagus. This new mode of sculpture was the visual counter- The corner figures, both on and supporting the sarcopha- part of the widely diffused apocryphal literature, gus, project out diagonally, encouraging the observer to in which the sparse accounts of the Gospels were move around the ensemble. enriched with domestic incidents, making the sacred figures human. The bold and original design of the arca has sources as disparate as pulpits, bishops\u2019 thrones, holy water In 1265, Nicola signed a contract for a second pulpit, fonts, and ancient sarcophagi and was conceived as ad- in this case for the cathedral of Siena. Several assistants, dressing both laypeople and the Dominican hierarchy. including Arnolfo di Cambio and Nicola\u2019s son Giovanni, When the tomb was in its original location between the are named in the contract. This pulpit, completed in 1268 presbytery and south aisle, Dominic\u2019s most public and and placed within the enormous space of the duomo, is most spectacular miracles were on the side facing the lay octagonal and is larger and more complex than the one congregation, thus serving to promote the cult; and the in the baptistery in Pisa. Here, the narrative program scenes of the founding and expansion of the Dominican began at the stairway bridge leading to the pulpit casket, order, which were of greater interest to the clergy, were with a figure of Gabriel (now in Berlin) corresponding on the side facing the choir area. to Mary of the Annunciation seen at the left edge of the first relief (Seidel 1970). As at Pisa, there are three The last major work securely associated with Nicola\u2019s tiers\u2014supporting columns, arcade, and parapet. The name is the Fontana Maggiore (\u201cgreat fountain\u201d) in Pe- central support includes figures representing, for the rugia, completed in 1278. This is a remarkable secular first time, the liberal arts. The narratives now include and civic monument, as original in form and conception the emotionally wrenching Massacre of the Innocents among fountains as Nicola\u2019s pulpits and the arca are, and a Last Judgment that spreads over two fields, with a respectively, among pulpits and tombs. The Fontana full-length figure of Christ the judge between the reliefs. Maggiore is polygonal and embellished with sculptures; Furthermore, instead of column clusters (as at Pisa), it stands in Perugia\u2019s main civic and religious square, there are corner figures framing the reliefs, resulting in and it began not as an artistic project but rather as an a continuous visual and narrative flow. The classicizing engineering and hydraulic problem: it was intended to forms of the earlier pulpit give way to more elegantly bring an adequate water supply to Perugia, a town poor proportioned figures with softer draperies and refined in freshwater springs (Nicco Fasola 1951). Precedents features\u2014an ideal influenced by French Gothic art. In for some elements of the fountain\u2019s formal structure are the narratives, the figures are smaller and more densely found in two- and three-basin liturgical furnishings, such packed, and the compositions are organized to suggest 540","as baptismal and cloister fonts; and also in illustrations PLEYDENWURFF, HANS of the fans vitae, copies of the Holy Tomb, pulpits, and altar ciboria (Hoffmann-Curtis 1968; Schulze 1994). Hoffmann-Curtis, Kathrin. Das Programm der Fontana Maggiore However, there is no close prototype for the scale, the in Perugia. D\u00fcsseldorf: Rheinland-Verlag, 1968. complexity of design, or the richness of the program of this indispensably functional urban monument. The Kosegarten, Antje Middeldorf. \u201cDie Skulpturen der Pisani am sculpture on the basins is uniquely expansive, includ- Baptisterium von Pisa.\u201d Jahrbuch der Berliner Museen, 10, ing scenes from Genesis, prophets, saints, \u201clabors of 1968, pp. 14\u2013100. the months,\u201d the liberal arts, various fables, allegori- cal figures, and even contemporary civic personages. Moskowitz, Anita Fiderer. Nicola Pisano\u2019s Arca di San Domenico A ring of steps serves as a foundation; on this rests a and Its Legacy. University Park: Pennsylvania State University twenty-five-sided basin with low reliefs separated by Press, 1994. colonettes. Above this rises a smaller basin of twelve plain concave sides with figures at the angles and at the \u2014\u2014. Italian Gothic Sculpture c. 1250\u2013c. 1400. Cambridge: center of each face. From here a thick bronze column Cambridge University Press, 2001. emerges supporting a third, still smaller basin, also of bronze, which in turn contains three graceful bronze Nicco Fasola, Giusta. Nicola Pisano: Orientamenti sulla formazi- female caryatids. The facets of the superimposed lower one del gusto italiano. Rome: Fratelli Palombi, 1941. basins do not line up, resulting in a syncopated rhythm that impels the viewer to move around the structure. \u2014\u2014. La fontana di Perugia. Rome: Libreria dello Stato, 1951. Simultaneously, the vertical elements, together with Schulze, Ulrich. Brunnen im Mittelalter: Politische Ikonographie the diminishing sizes of the basins and the increasing plasticity of the sculpture, draw the eye upward. The der Kommunen in Italien. Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 1994. effect is of a spiral movement that culminates in, and Seidel, Max. \u201cDie Verk\u00fcndigungsgruppe der Siena Domkanzel.\u201d is resolved by, the caryatid group. The fountain was designed to be seen not only from the ground but also M\u00fcnchener Jahrbuch der Bildenden Kunst, 21, 1970, pp. from the balcony of the communal palace (altered at a 18\u201372. later date), which was used for announcements to the piazza below and as an entrance to the audience hall Anita F. Moskowitz within for government officials and citizens. Even today, the view from above has its own special effect, as the PLEYDENWURFF, HANS (ca. 1425\u20131472) play of descending water contrasts with the ascending concentric superimposed basins. This panel and glass painter was active in Franconia from circa 1450 until about 1472. He established the Nicola\u2019s sculpture provided the source and impetus first significant painting workshop in Nuremberg, which for the development of his two major assistants. His produced works inspired by Netherlandish art. Michel son Giovanni took up the emotional current of Nicola\u2019s Wolgemut was his pupil and assistant. style, transforming it into a very personal and highly charged idiom. Arnolfo di Cambio\u2019s temperament led Pleydenwurff was born circa 1425 in Bamberg. him instead toward a starkly monumental and classiciz- Nothing is known of his initial training, but he probably ing mode. Nicola\u2019s art profoundly influenced not only went to the Netherlands in the early 1450s. He worked his immediate successors but also the painting of Giotto in Bamberg then in Nuremberg, where he became a and, indeed, the entire naturalistic and classicizing tradi- citizen in 1457. At his death there in 1472, Pleyden- tion of the art of the following centuries. wurff was listed as a glass painter. That year, Michel Wolgemut married his widow, Barbara, and inherited See also Arnolfo di Cambio; Pisano, Giovanni the workshop. Further Reading Pleydenwurff\u2019s only documented work is the Breslau Altarpiece, of which only fragments survive. Installed in Bagnoli, Alessandro. \u201cNovit\u00e0 su Nicola Pisano scultore nel Duo- the church of St. Elizabeth in Breslau on June 30, 1462, mo di Siena.\u201d Prospettiva, 27, October 1981, pp. 27\u201346. this large double-winged retable with a carved shrine featured scenes from Christ\u2019s Infancy and Passion, and Caleca, Antonino. La dotta mano: Il battistero di Pisa. Bergamo: Saints Jerome and Vincent of Teate. The upper part of Bolis, 1991. the Presentation survives (Warsaw, Nationalmuseum). An undamaged wing with the Descent from the Cross Carli, Enzo. Il duomo di Siena. Genoa: SAGEP, 1979. (Nuremberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum) is based Cristiani Testi, Maria Laura. Nicola Pisano: Architetto scultore. on Roger van der Weyden\u2019s Deposition Altarpiece of circa 1444 (Madrid, Prado). Pisa: Pacini, 1987. Gnudi, Cesare. Nicola, Arnolfo, Lapo: L\u2019arca di San Domenico Other works have been attributed to Pleydenwurff on the basis of style. Earliest is the half-length L\u00f6wenstein in Bologna. Florence: Edizioni U, 1948. Diptych of about 1456. Based on a type popularized by Roger van der Weyden in the Netherlands, it consists of a Man of Sorrows (Basel, Kunstmuseum) and a portrait of the Bamberg canon and subdeacon, Count Georg von L\u00f6wenstein (Nuremberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum). Also ascribed to Pleydenwurff are a large Crucifixion (Munich, Alte Pinakothek), circa 1470, an altarpiece wing with St. Lawrence (Raleigh, North Carolina Museum of Art), after 1462, and wings with Infancy and Passion scenes from the Hof Altarpiece 541","PLEYDENWURFF, HANS envoy from Hulaku Khan to Kublai Khan (grandson of the Mongul conqueror Genghis Khan); and in 1266 (Munich, Alte Pinakothek), dated 1465. This last was a they arrived at Kublai Khan\u2019s summer palace in Shangtu workshop production, executed by assistants, including (near Tolun on the Shan-tien Ho, or Luan River, about Michel Wolgemut. 150 miles\u2014240 kilometers\u2014north of Beijing). The brothers stayed at Shangtu for several months before See also Wolgemut, Michael returning to Italy with a message for Pope Clement IV from Kublai Khan. Further Reading Not long after their return to Venice in 1269, the Kahsnitz, Rainer. \u201cStained Glass in Nuremberg.\u201d Gothic and brothers decided to bring Marco with them on their Renaissance Art in Nuremberg 1300\u20131550. New York: Met- second expedition to China. They left Venice in 1271, ropolitan Museum of Art, 1986, pp. 87\u201392. accompanied by two Dominican monks who were supposed to travel with them to Shangtu but who soon L\u00f6cher, Kurt. \u201cPanel Painting in Nuremberg: 1350\u20131550.\u201d In withdrew from the expedition. When the Polos arrived Gothic and Renaissance Art in Nuremberg 1300\u20131550. New in Acre (Akko) on the Syrian coast, they received let- York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1986, pp. 81\u201386. ters from the newly elected Pope Gregory X for Kublai Khan. From Acre they went to Ayas (Cilicia) on the Stange, Alfred Deutsche Malerei der Gotik. 10 vols. Berlin: southeastern coast of Turkey and presumably took the Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1934\u20131960, vol. 9, pp. 41\u201344. caravan route to the Turkish cities of Kayseri, Sivas, Erzincan, and Erzurum before arriving at Lake Van. Strieder, Peter. Tafelmalerei in N\u00fcrnberg 1350\u20131550. K\u00f6nigstein From there the Polos passed through eastern Armenia, im Taunus: Karl Robert Langewiesche Nachfolger, 1993, where Marco describes Mount Ararat (the traditional pp. 52\u201359. site of Noah\u2019s landing after the flood), and then south to the Persian cities of Tabriz,Yazd, and Kerman before Suckale, Robert. \u201cHans Pleydenwurff in Bamberg.\u201d Berichte des reaching the ancient Persian port of Hormuz (Bandar historischen Vereins Bamberg 120 (1984): 423\u2013438. Abbas). When they realized that it was unsafe to go to China by ship, the Polos retraced their steps back to Susanne Reece Kerman and went north to Mashhad, in northeastern Iran. It is at this point in the narrative that Marco re- POLO, MARCO (1254\u20131324) counts the tale of the \u201cOld Man of the Mountain,\u201d one of the best-known episodes in Il Milione. From there the What we know of Marco Polo is based largely on his Polos went to Balkh (in northern Afghanistan), where, Divisament dou monde, later known as Libra delle according to Marco, Alexander the Great married the meraviglie del mondo, or simply as Il Milione (after daughter of Darius, and then to the castle of Taican the name Emilione, which Marco Polo and his relatives (present Talikan), known for its nearby salt mountains. used to distinguish themselves from the many other They spent a year in the province of Badakhshan while Polos in Venice). Tradition has it that Marco dictated Marco recovered from an illness. this work to Rustichello da Pisa while the two were held in a Genoese prison. Rustichello, a writer of Arthurian On Marco\u2019s recovery, the Polos presumably followed romances, transcribed Marco\u2019s account into Old French the Oxus (Amu-Dar\u2019ya) and Vakhsh rivers, crossed the (the preeminent vernacular of the romance genre), and Pamirs (known to Marco as the \u201croof of the world\u201d), and embellished it with narrative and stylistic features typi- reached the old silk route. The Polos followed the silk cal of a medieval romance. Since people in the Middle route through eastern Turkestan to the Chinese cities of Ages regarded Il Milione as a book of marvels, it took a Kashgar (K\u2019a-shih),Yarkand (Soch\u2019e), Khotan (Hotien), long time before cartographers and explorers (including Keriya (Y\u00fctien), and Cherchen (Ch\u2019iehmo) before ar- Christopher Columbus) became aware of its importance riving in the ancient city of Lop (either Charkhliq or as a work of geography. Milan), where they made preparations to cross the desert and the salt-encrusted bed of dry Lop Nor. After Marco Polo\u2019s work is more than a medieval romance thirty days of travel through the desert, they arrived at or a book of marvels; it was probably meant to be a Sha-Chou (Tun Huang), the first Chinese city under straightforward account of two journeys to China: the the khan\u2019s rule. From there they went to Kan Chou first by his father Niccol\u00f2 Polo and his uncle Matteo (Zhangye or Chang-yeh) in Kansu province, where they Polo, and the second by all three Polos. There are nu- spent a year waiting, presumably, for the khan to send merous discrepancies among the manuscripts and early them an escort. They resumed their journey by going editions of Il Milione which probably do not reflect south to Lanchou and then north along the Yellow Marco\u2019s original account or Rustichello\u2019s lost rendi- River (and perhaps along the Great Wall) in the direction tion of it. There is, however, sufficient information in the most important manuscripts to enable scholars to reconstruct the Polos\u2019 two expeditions to China. In 1260, the two Venetian brothers departed from Constantinople, where they had done business for six years, and arrived in Bukhara (in the Uzbek republic). They were forced to stay there for three years because local wars had cut off the roads leading back to the west. During that time they accepted an invitation to join an 542","of Beijing, and arrived at Shangtu in 1275. POLO, MARCO Marco spent the next seventeen years serving Kublai Further Reading Khan on several diplomatic missions to the southern regions of the khan\u2019s vast empire, including Y\u00fcnnan Editions province, Burma (as far as the Irrawaddy River), Cochin China (Vietnam), and even parts of Tibet. Although Benedetto, Luigi Foscolo. Il libro di Messer Marco Polo cit- Marco was impressed by most of these places, his great- tadino di Venezia detto Milione si raccontano le Meraviglie est praise and most detailed descriptions are reserved del mondo. Milan and Rome: Tr\u00e8ves, Treccani, Tumminelli, for Hangchou in Chechiang province, the largest and 1932. most important city in China at this time. As scholars have pointed out, it was probably Marco\u2019s ability to Marco Polo. Il libro di Marco Polo detto Milione nella versione describe in detail the people, customs, and geography trecentesca dell\u2019Ottimo, ed. Daniele Ponchiroli with an intro- of all these places (most of which the khan himself had duction by Sergio Solmi. Turin: Einaudi, 1974. never seen) that enabled him to remain in the emperor\u2019s good graces for seventeen years. Marco, in fact, claims \u2014\u2014. Il Milione, ed. Luigi Foscolo Benedetto. Florence: Leo that Kublai Khan rewarded him for his services by Olschki, 1928. making him \u201cgovernor\u201d of the city of Yangchou, 50 miles (80 kilometers) northeast of Nanking (Nanch- \u2014\u2014. Il Milione, ed. Ranieri Allulli. Classici Mondadori. Milan ing). Scholars, however, find it hard to believe that a and Verona: Mondadori, 1954. foreigner could have held such an important position: it is more likely that Marco held a minor post, such as \u2014\u2014. Milione, ed. Lucia Battaglia Ricci. Firenze: Sansoni, 2001. that of inspector. \u2014\u2014. Milione: Le divisament dou monde; il Milione nelle re- In 1292, the Polos found an opportunity to return dazioni toscana e franco italiana, ed. Gabriella Ronchi, intro. to Venice by joining an envoy escorting the princess Cesare Segre. Milan: Mondadori, 1982. Cocacin to her groom, Arghun Khan of Persia, the \u2014\u2014. Il Milione: Introduzione, edizione del testo toscano (\u201cOt- grandnephew of Kublai Khan. The envoy departed from timo\u201d), ed. Ruggero M. Ruggieri. Biblioteca dell\u2019Archivum the port of Zaiton (Chuanchou or Chinchiang in Fuchien Romanicum, Series 1(200). Florence: Olschki, 1986. province on the Formosa Strait) and sailed along the \u2014\u2014. Il \u201cMilione\u201d veneto: Ms. CM 211 della Biblioteca Civica coasts of China and Vietnam to Sumatra, Ceylon, and di Padova, ed. Alvaro Barbieri and Alvise Andreose. Venice: the Malabar Coast of India before reaching Hormuz Marsilio, 1999. almost two years later. In Hormuz, the Polos learned \u2014\u2014. Milione: Versione toscana del trecento, ed. Valeria Ber- of Arghun\u2019s death and delivered Cocacin to Arghun\u2019s tolucci Pizzorusso. Milan: Adelphi, 1975. (With index and brother Kaikhatu. They spent the next nine months in glossary by Giorgio R. Cardona.) Tabriz before going to Trebizond (the Turkish town Marco Polo: Milione; Giovanni da Pian del Carpine: Viaggi a\u2019 of Trabzon on the Black Sea). From there they sailed Tartari. Novara: Istituto Geografico De Agostini, 1982. (In- to Constantinople and Negroponte (a Venetian colony cludes an Italian translation of Historia mongolorum.) on the Greek island of Euboea) before finally arriving in Venice in 1295. Not long after his return to Venice, English Translations Marco was taken prisoner by the Genoese while sailing a galley (possibly in 1296). He remained in prison until Bellonci, Maria. The Travels of Marco Polo, trans. Teresa Waugh. 1299, during which time he dictated to Rustichello his New York: Facts on File, 1984. adventures in the far east. The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian, Concerning the The Polos\u2019 two journeys to China were the farthest Kingdoms and Marvels of the East, trans. and ed. HenryYule. any European had traveled to the Orient since the time of New York: Scribner, 1929. (3rd ed., \u201crevised throughout in Justinian. In 1246, Giovanni di Piano Carpini, who was a the light of recent discoveries,\u201d but not based on Benedetto\u2019s Franciscan emissary of Pope Innocent IV and the author critical edition.) of a history on the Mongols (Historia mongolorum), went as far as Karakorum (the ancient Mongolian capi- Marco Polo. The Description of the World, trans. A. C. Pelliot tal, about 250 miles\u2014400 kilometers\u2014west of Ulaan and P. Pelliot. London: Routledge, 1938. Baatar). In 1253, William of Rubruck, also a Franciscan friar, went to Karakorum as an envoy of King Louis IX \u2014\u2014. The Travels of Marco Polo, trans. Ronald Latham. Har- of France. Although both friars left written accounts of mondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1958. their trips to Mongolia, neither account captured the imagination of so many people for so many centuries Critical Studies as Marco\u2019s Il Milione. Barozzi, Pietro. Appunti per la lettura del Milione. Genoa: Fratelli Bozzi, 1971. Bellonci, Maria. Marco Polo. Milan: Rizzoli, 1989. Benedetto, Luigi Foscolo. La tradizione manoscritta del Milione di Marco Polo. Turin: Bottega d\u2019Erasmo, 1982. Brunello, Franco. Marco Polo e le merci dell\u2019Oriente. Vicenza: Neri Pozza, 1986. Capusso, Maria Grazia. La lingua del Divisament dou monde di Marco Polo. Pisa: Pacini, 1980. Hart, Henry Hersh. Marco Polo: Venetian Adventurer. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1967. Komroff, Manuel. Contemporaries of Marco Polo: Consisting of the Travel Records to the Eastern Parts of the World of William of Rubruck. New York: Boni and Liveright, 1928. Marco Polo, Venezia, e l\u2019oriente, ed. Alvise Zorzi. Milan: Electa, 1982. Olschki, Leonardo. L\u2019Asia di Marco Polo: Introduzione alla let- tura e allo studio del Milione. Florence: Civelli, 1957. \u2014\u2014\u2014. Marco Polo\u2019s Asia: An Introduction to His \u201cDescrip- tion of the World\u201d Called Il Milione, trans. John A Scott. Los Angeles and Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960. 543","POLO, MARCO \u2014\u2014. \u201cDire Potter, a Medieval Ovid,\u201d in Erik Kooper, ed. Medi- eval Dutch Literature in Its European Context. Cambridge: Pelliot, Paul. Notes on Marco Polo, 2 vols. Paris: Imprimerie Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 151\u2013167. Nationale, 1959. van Oostrom, Frits P. Court and Culture: Dutch Literature, Ross, E. Denison. Marco Polo and His Book. Annual Italian 1350\u20131450. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Lectures of the British Academy: 1934. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1934. Alfons M. J. van Buuren Segre, Cesare, Gabriella Ronchi, and Marisa Miianesi. Avventure POWER, LEONEL (ca. 1375\/85\u20131445) del Milione. Parma: Zara, 1986. Composer and music theorist, one of the most prolific Watanabe, Hiroshi. Marco Polo Bibliography: 1477\u20131983. Tokyo: and influential in the first half of the 15th century. The Toyo Bunko, 1986. first reference to Leonel occurs in 1418 in the records of the household chapel of Thomas duke of Clarence, Zorzi,Alvise. Vita di Marco Polo Veneziano. Milan: Rusconi, 1982. where he was probably employed as a specialist musi- cian rather than as a cleric. Since his name is given Steven Grossvogel second in the accounts, he may have been one of its most senior members, recruited perhaps as early as 1411\u201313. POTTER, DIRC After Clarence\u2019s death in 1421 Leonel\u2019s movements (ca. 1368\/1370\u2013April 30, 1428) become uncertain, though he may have worked in one of the other English ducal chapels. In 1423 he became Dutch poet and diplomat. After he finished high school a member of the confraternity of the priory at Christ (the \u201cLatin School,\u201d) Potter entered the service of the Church, Canterbury, but there is no evidence that this count of Holland. Having started as a treasury clerk, he involved any professional duties. That he spent his last was, after 1400, promoted to clerk of the court of justice, years in Canterbury is confirmed by a legal document bailiff of The Hague, and secretary of the count. As a of 1438 and by records suggesting that from 1439 until diplomat he went on a number of journeys to Rome his death he acted as master of the Lady Chapel choir (1411\u20131412). In his spare time he wrote works of litera- of the cathedral. ture: two discourses in prose (after March 1415), Blome der doechden (Flowers of Virtue), which goes back to Most of Leonel\u2019s substantial surviving output (over the Italian Fiore di virt\u00f9, and Mellibeus, translated from 40 pieces, not counting those with conflicting attri- a French translation of Albertanus of Brescia\u2019s Liber butions) is either for the Ordinary of the mass or for consolationis; but his principal work is Der minnen loep Marian services; secular music and isorhythmic motets (The Course of Love, 1411\u20131412), a treatise in verse are lacking. This narrow range of genres is, however, about love, larded with stories largely taken from the counterbalanced by an unusually wide variety of styles, Bible and from Ovid, in particular from the Heroides. much wider than that shown by his younger contem- The work consists of four books (over eleven thousand porary Dunstable, and his music accurately reflects the lines). Potter distinguishes \u201cfoolish,\u201d \u201cgood,\u201d \u201cillicit,\u201d important technical changes that occurred during his and \u201clicit\u201d love; one book is devoted to each of them. long career. Potter derived the classification in Books I, III, and IV from medieval commentaries on Heroides, which dis- Leonel\u2019s earliest surviving music comes mainly from cern in the Heroides amor stultus, illicitus, and licitus. the Old Hall Manuscript and bears the hallmark of a The \u201cgood\u201d love of Book II does not originate from the skilled and inventive composer fully conversant with Heroides commentaries, but (at least from Potter\u2019s point the techniques available at the beginning of the 15th of view) it forms a whole with \u201clicit\u201d love, which is the century; clearly he was proficient at all levels of elabora- highest degree of \u201cgood\u201d love. It turns out that Potter tion, from austere discant through florid melodic writing knew the complete \u201cmedieval Ovid\u201d: Ovid\u2019s works, the to ingenious use of isorhythm. He seems, however, to commentaries on these works, and the accessus, i.e., the have taken a particular delight in rhythmic intricacies medieval introductions to them. Within the tradition of expressed through notational tricks that are esoteric even the \u201cpagan\u201d artes amandi (treatises on the art of love), by the standards of Old Hall. Some of Leonel\u2019s music Potter created a Christianized ars amatoria. As such seems to be contrived around numerical relationships; in he is highly original: Der minnen loep is unique in the this respect he is typical of composers of his time, though European context. his usage is notably less involved than that of Dunstable. Further Reading About this time he and others began to group mass movements in pairs, an idea that eventually led to the Leendertz, Pieter, ed. Der minnen loep, 2 vols. Leiden: du Mortier, establishment of the cyclic mass. Only one such cycle 1845\u20131847. survives with an undisputed attribution to Leonel (built on the piainsong Alma redemptoris mater), but two more Overmaat, Bernard G. L. \u201cMellibeus. Arnhem.\u201d Ph.d. diss., carry conflicting ascriptions. In this and later music University of Nijmegen, 1950. Schoutens, Stephanus. Dat bouck der bloemen. Hoogstraten: Van Hoof-Roelans, 1904 [Blome der doechden]. van Buuren, A. M. J. Der minnen loep van Dirc Potter: studie over een Middelnederlandse ars amandi. Utrecht: HES, 1979. 544","he inclined toward the melodically, rhythmically, and PROSDOCIMUS DE BELDEMANDIS harmonically smoother style cultivated from the 1430s onward; and what appear to be his last Marian antiphons rum, diversitatis aspectus lune, mediarum coniunctio- are as forward-looking as anything of the period. Most num et oppositionum lunarium, feriarum, latitudinum of these more modern-sounding works are preserved climatum, longitudinum et latitudinum civitatum; Stelle only in continental sources, and doubtless there is further fixe verificate tempore Alphonsi; Canon ad inveniendum music by Leonel among the many anonymous pieces in tempus introitus solis in quodcumque 12 signorum the earlier Trent Codices and other mid-century conti- in zodiaco; Canon ad inveniendum introitum lune in nental manuscripts. quodlibet signorum in zodiaco; Compositio astrolabii; and Astrolabium. On music: Expositiones tractatus Leonel\u2019s short treatise in the vernacular \u201cfor hem that pratice cantus mensurabilis Johannis de Muris (Padua, wilbe syngers or makers or techers\u201d provides a lucid possibly 1404); Tractatus pratice cantus mensurabilis explanation of improvised counterpoint, especially as (1408); Brevis summula proportionum quantum ad it involves boys\u2019 voices. musicam pertinet (1409); Contrapunctus (Montagnana, 1412); Tractatus pratice cantus mensurabilis ad modum See also Dunstable, John Ytalicorum (Montagnana, 1412); Tractatus plane mu- sice (Montagnana, 1412); Parvus tractatulus de modo Further Reading monacordum dividendi (Padua, 1413); and Tractatus musice speculative (1425). Primary Sources Prosdocimus based his Algorismus de integris on a Hamm, Charles, ed. Leonel Power: Complete Works. Corpus similarly titled work of the thirteenth-century polymath Mensurabilis Musicae 50. Rome: American Institute of Johannes de Sacrobosco; his Scriptum super tractatu de Musicology, 1969 spera Johannis de Sacrobosco is based on the same au- thor\u2019s textbook of Ptolemaic astronomy, one of the most Hughes, Andrew, and Margaret Bent, eds. The Old Hall Manu- widely disseminated medieval astronomical works. script. 3 vols. in 4. Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae 46, Rome: American Institute of Musicology, 1969\u201373 Prosdocimus\u2019s musical treatises represent an at- tempt to survey the entire discipline; no earlier music Meech, Sanford B. \u201cThree Musical Treatises in English from theorist had attempted such a comprehensive project a Fifteenth-Century Manuscript.\u201d Speculum 10 (1935): through separate treatises on the subdisciplines, and 235\u201369. Prosdocimus\u2019s musical writings are of great importance because of their scope and clarity. In Parvus tractatulus Secondary Sources de modo monacordum dividendi, he described a scale that preserved the standard medieval \u201cPythagorean\u201d Bent, Margaret. \u201cPower, Leonel.\u201d NGD 15:174\u201379 tuning (i.e., with pure perfect fifths, slightly wider Bowers, Roger D. \u201cSome Observations on the Life and Career of than those of present-day equal temperament) but with seventeen notes to the octave (seven naturals, five flats, Lionel Power,\u201d Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association and five sharps not quite in tune with the flats); this ex- 102 (1975\u201376): 103\u201327. panded scale may have been an important step toward the tempered tunings of the later fifteenth century. In Gareth Curtis Contrapunctus, he confirmed that medieval scribes did not write all the accidentals they necessarily expected to PROSDOCIMUS DE BELDEMANDIS be performed, and he gave rules that clarify where ac- (d. 1428) cidentals are appropriate, even if unwritten. He surveyed the theory of rhythmic mensuration in three treatises, Prosdocimus de Beldemandis (Prosdocimo de\u2019 Beldo- Expositiones tractatus pratice cantus mensurabilis Jo- mandi), was the author of treatises on arithmetic, geom- hannis de Muris (a commentary on the Libellus cantus etry, astronomy, and music. After studying in Bologna, mensurabilis, the most widely disseminated medieval he took a doctorate in arts at Padua on 15 May 1409 and treatise on mensuration, which laid the foundation for received a license in medicine there on 15 April 1411. French fourteenth-century rhythmic notation); Trac- He was a professor of arts and medicine at Padua from tatus pratice cantus mensurabilis, his own account of 1422, at the latest, until his death. fourteenth-century French mensuration; and Tractatus pratice cantus mensurabilis ad modum Ytalicorum, an Prosdocimus wrote on all four of the quadrivial arts; exposition of contemporaneous Italian mensuration (this the following treatises have survived. On arithmetic: is the most comprehensive treatment of Italian mensura- Canon in quo docetur modus componendi et operandi tion in its mature stage). Tractatus musice speculative is tabulam quandam (Padua, 1409 or 1419) and Algorismus an attack on the division of the tone into fifths described de integris sive pratica arismetrice de integris (Padua, a century earlier by Marchetto da Padova, based on what 1410). On geometry: De parallelogramo. On astronomy: Brevis tractatulus de electionibus secundum situm lune in suis 28 mansionibus (Montagnana, 1413); Scriptum super tractatu de spera Johannis de Sacrobosco (Padua, 1418); Canones de motibus corporum supercelestium (Padua, 1424); Tabule mediorum motuum, equationum, stationum et latitudinum planetarum, elevationis signo- 545","PROSDOCIMUS DE BELDEMANDIS Favaro, Antonio. \u201cIntorno alia vita ed alle opere di Prosdocimo de Beldomandi matematico padovano del secolo XV.\u201d Bullet- Prosdocimus saw as the earlier theorist\u2019s abandonment tino di Bibliografia e di Storia delle Scienze Matematiche e of \u201cPythagorean\u201d tuning and his faulty logic. Fisiche, 12, 1979, pp. 1\u201374, 115\u2013251. (Includes Canon in quo docetur modus componendi et operandi tabulam quondam, The manuscript Florence, Biblioteca Medicea-Lau- pp. 143\u2013145; and De parallelogrammo, p. 170.) renziana, Ashburnham 206, written by Prosdocimus in 1409, is an anthology of the curriculum of the Paduan \u2014\u2014. \u201cAppendice agli studi intorno alla vita ed alle opere college of arts and medicine at the time. It includes di Prosdocimo de Beldomandi matematico padovano del the Algorismus de integris of Johannes de Sacrobosco, secolo XV.\u201d Bullettino di Bibliografia e di Storia delle Scienze the Algorismus de integris of Johannes de Lineriis, the Matematiche e Fisiche, 18, 1985, pp. 405\u2013423. Canones supra tabulas Alphonsi and the Scriptum su- per Alkabicium of Johannes de Saxonia, the De septem Gallo, F. Alberto. \u201cLa tradizione dei trattati musicali di Prosdo- planetis of Messahala, the Tractatus quadrantis novi cimo de Beldemandis.\u201d Quadrivium, 6, 1964, pp. 57\u201384. and the Canones de almanach perpetuum of Profatius Judaeus, and the De prognosticatione mortis et vite Herlinger, Jan. \u201cWhat Trecento Music Theory Tells Us.\u201d In Ex- secundum motum lune of Pseudo-Hippocrates, among plorations in Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Essays in Honor of shorter works on arithmetic, astronomy, and astrology Leonard B. Meyer, ed. Eugene Narmour and Ruth A. Solie. and several compilations of medical prescriptions. Festschrift Series, 7. Stuyvesant, N.Y.: Pendragon, 1988, pp. 177\u2013197. Further Reading Lindley, Mark. \u201cPythagorean Intonation and the Rise of the Editions and Translations Triad.\u201d Royal Musical Association Research Chronicle, 16, 1980, pp. 4\u201361. Algorismus de integris magistri Prosdocimi Debeldamandis Pa- tavi simul cum Algorismo de de [sic] minutiis seu fractionibus Sartori, Claudio. La notazione italiana del Trecento in una re- magistri Ioannis de Lineriis. Venice, 1540. dazione inedita del \u201cTractatus practice cantus mensurabilis ad modum ytalicorum\u201d di Prosdocimo de Beldemandis. Algorismus Prosdocimi de Beldamandis una cum minuciis Jo- Florence: Olschki, 1938. (Includes Tractatus pratice cantus hannes de Lineriis. Padua, 1483. mensurabilis ad modum Ytalicorum, pp. 35\u201371.) Coussemaker, Edmond de, ed. Scriptorum de musica medii aevi Jan Herlinger nova series, Vol. 3. Paris: Durand, 1869. (Reprint, Hildesheim: Olms, 1963. Includes Tractatus de contrapuncto, pp. 193\u2013199; PTOLEMY OF LUCCA Tractatus practice de musica mensurabili, pp. 200\u2013228; Trac- (c. 1236\u20131327) tatus practice de musica mensurabili ad modum Italicorum, pp. 228\u2013248; Libellus monocordi, pp. 248\u2013258; Brevis sum- Ptolemy Fiadoni of Lucca (Tolomeo, Tholomeo, mula proportionum, pp. 258\u2013261.) Ptolomeo, Bartolomeo) was a member of a family that belonged to the Lucchese commercial elite, though not Gallo, F. Alberto, ed. Prosdocimi de Beldemandis \u201cExpositiones the aristocracy. He entered the Dominican convent of tractatus practice cantus mensurabilis magistri Johannis San Romano at Lucca at an unknown date, but obviously de Muris.\u201d Prosdocimi de Beldemandis Opera, 1. Bologna: before he accompanied Thomas Aquinas on a journey Antiquae Musicae Italicae Studiosi, 1966. from Rome to Naples in 1272. He remained in Rome with Aquinas until 1274, probably helping him set up Herlinger, Jan, ed. Prosdocimo de\u2019Beldomandi: Contrapunctus. a studium of theology in the Neapolitan convent of San Greek and Latin Music Theory 1. Lincoln: University of Domenico. Ptolemy included a long account of Aqui- Nebraska Press, 1984. nas\u2019s life and works in his Historia ecclesiastica nova. Ptolemy may also have visited or lived in Rome during \u2014\u2014, ed. Prosdocimo de\u2019Beldomandi: Brevis summula proportio- the time of Pope Nicholas III (r. 1278\u20131280), since his num quantum ad musicam pertinet and Parvus tractatulus de Historia ecclesiastica contains interesting descriptions modo monacordum dividendi. Greek and Latin Music Theory of Nicholas\u2019s building projects. Libellus de iurisdictione 4. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987. imperii et auctoritate summi pontificis (usually called Determinatio compendiosa), written at about this period, \u2014\u2014, ed. Prosdocimo de\u2019 Beldomandi: Tractatus plane musice seems to breathe the spirit of Nicholas\u2019s pontificate. and Tractatus musice speculative. (Forthcoming.) In 1283\u20131285 Ptolemy visited Provence. In 1285 he was made prior of San Romano in Lucca. In 1288 he Huff, Jay A., trans. Prosdocimus de Beldemandis: A Treatise on was named preacher-general of his order and attended the Practice of Mensural Music in the Italian Manner. Musi- its general chapter in Lucca; he was a diffinitor at the cological Studies and Documents, 29. American Institute of general chapters of 1300 at Marseilles and of 1302 at Musicology, 1972. Cologne. During the years 1287\u20131307 there are frequent documentary references to his presence in the Lucchese Spherae tractatus Ioannis de Sacro Busto Anglici..., Prosdocimi convent, often as prior; he was also (from 1300 to 1302) de beldomando patavini super tractatu sphaerico commen- prior of Santa Maria Novella in Florence. During this taria\u2026. Venice, 1531. period he made other trips outside Lucca; for example, Ptolemy witnessed the election of Celestine V at Perugia Critical Studies Baralli, D. Raffaello, and Luigi Torri. \u201cIl Trattato di Prosdocimo de\u2019 Beldomandi contro il Lucidario di Marchetto da Padova per la prima volta trascritto e illustrato.\u201d Rivista Musicale Italiana, 20, 1913, pp. 707\u2013762. (Includes Tractatus musice speculative, pp. 731\u2013762.) Berger, Karol. Musica Ficta: Theories of Accidental Inflections in Vocal Polyphony from Marchetto da Padova to Gioseffo Zarlino. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. 546","and his crowning at Aquila and was in Naples during his PTOLEMY OF LUCCA pontificate in 1294. Ptolemy was in Avignon by 1309 and spent most of the next two decades there, serving at Ptolemy tried to reconcile this view with the frequency least two cardinals. He was named bishop of Torcello in of despotism in contemporary Italy by saying that 1318. Because of a quarrel with the patriarch of Grado, northern Italians could be subjected only by coercion. Ptolemy\u2019s episcopate was stormy, and he even suffered As for the Roman empire, not it but the church was the excommunication and imprisonment. Pope John XXII legitimate heir of the Roman republic. The virtues of the restored Ptolemy to his see in 1323, probably while heroes of the Roman republic, to which Ptolemy also the pope was in Avignon attending the festivities for alluded in Determinatio compendiosa, recalled, in fact, Aquinas\u2019s canonization. Ptolemy died in Torcello. the pristine state of human nature before the fall of man. Ptolemy\u2019s attempt to justify and harmonize republican Though he wrote one \u201cscientific\u201d work, De operi- and hierocratic theories makes him one of the most bus sex dierum, published under the title Exaemeron, original political thinkers of the Middle Ages. Ptolemy\u2019s achievements as a historian and political thinker far outweighed those in philosophy or theology. See also Aquinas, Thomas Besides his Historia ecclesiastica nova, which is based not only on Martin of Troppau and other chroniclers but Further Reading also on numerous canonistic texts, Ptolemy wrote Gesta Tuscorum, a volume of annals extending from 1061 to Editions 1303 in which Tuscany and particularly Lucca figured prominently. Ptolemy refers also to a third historical De operibus sex dierum, ed. P. T. Masetti (as Exaemeron). Siena, work, Historia tripartita, of which no manuscript is 1880. known. His desire to exalt the temporal jurisdiction of the papacy found expression in his Libellus de lurisdic- De regimine principum, ed. Joseph Mathis, 2nd ed. Turin: Mari- tione imperii et auctoritate summi pontificis, published etti, 1948. as Determinatio compendiosa de iurisdictione imperii; and Tractatus de iurisdictione ecclesie super regnum De regno sive de regimine principum. In Thomas Aquinas, Apulie et Sicilie. Krammer, who edited Determinatio Opuscula omnia, Vol. 1, Opuscula philosophica, ed. Johannes compendiosa (1909), also edited De origine ac trans- Perrier. Paris: P. Lethielleux, 1949, pp. 220\u2013426. latione et statu romani imperii as a work probably by Ptolemy, but its authorship is uncertain. In about 1302 Gesta Tuscorum, ed. Bernhard Schmeidler (as Die Annalen des Ptolemy wrote his continuation of Aquinas\u2019s De regno; Tholomeus von Lucca). Monumenta Germaniae Historica, this composite work has usually been referred to as De Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum, New Series 8. Berlin: regimine principum and attributed solely to Aquinas. Weidmann, 1930. In Ptolemy\u2019s continuation, another dimension of his political thought came to the fore: his republicanism. He Historia ecclesiastica nova, ed. L. A. Muratori. Rerum Italicarum arranged governments under two main headings, politi- Scriptores, 11. Milan, 1727, pp. 740\u20131203. cal and despotic, classifying aristocracies and popular governments as political and all forms of absolute rule, Libellus de iurisdictione imperii et auctoritate summi pontifi- including kingship, as despotic. Ptolemy depended cis, ed. Mario Krammer (as Determinatio compendiosa de heavily on Aristotle\u2019s Politics, but Artistotle had drawn iurisdictione imperii). Monumenta Germaniae Historica, a sharp distinction between despotic and royal govern- Fontes Iuris Germanici Antiqui. Hannover and Leipzig: ment\u2014a distinction of which Ptolemy shows himself to Hahn, 1909. be well aware in his De operibus. Ptolemy\u2019s preference for political government was revealed in his claim that Tractatus de iurisdictione ecclesiae super regnum Apuliae et this was the regime best suited for inhabitants of Eden, Siciliae, ed. Etienne Baluze and Domenico Mansi. In Miscel- northern Italy, and Rome. In De operibus he said that in lanea, Vol. 1, Monumenta historica tum sacra tum profane. the state of innocence government would have been, as it Lucca: Riccomini, 1761, pp. 468\u2013473. was today among the angels, not despotic but political, a prelacy based on service, not a dominion involving Translation subjection\u2014subjection having come about only as a result of the fall of man. In De regimine principum he Ptolemy of Lucca. On the Government of Rulers: De regimine said that this was also true of northern Italy and Rome, principum\u2014Ptolemy of Lucca with portions attributed to whose inhabitants took pride in their own rationality, Thomas Aquinas, trans. James M. Blythe. Philadelphia: Uni- though it was not true of the majority of other postlapsar- versity of Pennsylvania Press, 1997. ian men, who usually profited more from royal rule. Critical Studies Blythe, James M. Ideal Government and the Mixed Constitution in the Middle Ages. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992. Davis, Charles. \u201cPtolemy of Lucca and the Roman Republic.\u201d Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 118, 1974, pp. 30\u201350. (Reprinted in Charles Davis. Dante\u2019s Italy and Other Essays. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984, pp. 254\u2013289.) . \u2014\u2014. \u201cRoman Patriotism and Republican Propaganda: Ptolemy of Lucca and Pope Nicholas III.\u201d Speculum, 50, 1975, pp. 411\u201333. (Reprinted in Charles Davis. Dante\u2019s Italy and Other Essays. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984, pp. 224\u2013253.) Dondaine, Antoine. \u201cLes \u2018Opuscula fratris Thomae\u2019 chez Ptole- m\u00e9e de Lucques.\u201d Archivum Fratrum Praedicatorum, 31, 1961, pp. 142\u2013203. 547","PTOLEMY OF LUCCA PUCELLE, JEAN (d. 1334) Grabmann, Martin. \u201cLa scuola tomistica italiana nel sec. XIII e An artist documented as producing the seal of the principio del XIV sec.\u201d Rivista di Filosofia Neoscolastica, 5, confraternity of Saint-Jacques-aux-P\u00e8lerins in Paris 1923, pp. 120\u2013127. between 1319 and 1324 and whose name appears in marginal notes along with two other illuminators Laurenti, Maria Cristina. \u201cTommaso e Tolomeo da Lucca \u2018com- in the Belleville Breviary (B.N. lat. 10483\u201384), dated mentatori\u2019 di Aristotele.\u201d Sandalion, 8\u20139, 1985\u20131986, pp. 1323\u201326. His name is also mentioned with two other 343\u2013371. illuminators in the Bible written by Robert de Billyng (B.N. lat. 11935), and inventory entries of the collection Panella, Emilio. \u201cPriori di Santa Maria Novella di Firenze 1221\u2013 of John, duke of Berry, have suggested that between 1325.\u201d Memorie Domenicane, 17, 1986, pp. 256\u2013266. 1325 and 1328 he made the book known as the Heures de Jeanne d\u2019\u00c9vreux (New York, The Cloisters) with \u2014\u2014. \u201cLivio in Tolomeo da Lucca.\u201d Studi Petrarcheschi, 6, 1989, miniatures and marginalia in grisaille. The styles of pp. 43\u201352. the miniatures in these manuscripts, however, are all different, and their authorship is the subject of ongoing \u2014\u2014. \u201cRilettura del De operibus sex dierum di Tolomeo dei controversy. At best, one can speak of a \u201cPucelle style\u201d Fiadoni da Lucca.\u201d Archivum Fratrum Praedicatorum, 63, that manifests a new sense of three-dimensionality in 1993, pp. 51\u2013111. modeled figures and architectural space in manuscripts produced for the royal court in the second quarter of Rubenstein, Nicolai. \u201cMarsilius of Padua and Italian Political the 14th century. Thought of His Time.\u201d In Europe in the Late Middle Ages, ed. J. L. Hale, J. R. L. Highfield, and B. Smalley. London: See also John, Duke of Berry Faber and Faber, 1965, pp. 44\u201375. Further Reading Schmeidler, Bernhard. \u201cStudien zu Tholomeus von Lucca, 1, Die Annalen oder Gesta Tuscorum des Tholomeus.\u201d Neues Archiv, The Hours of Jeanne d\u2019\u00c9vreux Queen of France, intro. James 33, 1908a, pp. 287\u2013308. . J. Rorimer. 2nd ed. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1965. \u2014\u2014. \u201cStudien zu Tholomeus von Lucca, 2, Gesta Lucanorum des Tholomeus.\u201d Neues Archiv, 33, 1908b, pp. 308\u2013343. Blum, Rudolf. \u201cJean Pucelle et la miniature Parisienne du XlVe si\u00e8cle.\u201d Scriptorium 3 (1949): 211\u201317. \u2014\u2014. \u201cStudien zu Tholomeus von Lucca, 3, Zur Wiederherstel- lung der Gesta Florentinorum des Tholomeus.\u201d Neues Archiv, Deuchler, Florens. \u201cJean Pucelle\u2014Facts and Fictions.\u201d Metro- 34, 1909, pp. 725\u2013756. politan Museum of Art Bulletin 29 (1971): 253\u201356. Schmugge, Ludwig. \u201cZur \u00dcberlieferung der Historia Ecclesias- Morand, Kathleen. Jean Pucelle. Oxford: Clarendon, 1962. [With tica nova des Tholomeus von Lucca.\u201d Deutsches Archiv f\u00fcr bibliography.] Erforschung des Mittelalters, 32, 1976, pp. 495\u2013545. Robert G. Calkins \u2014\u2014. \u201cKanonistik und Geschichtsschreibung.\u201d Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung f\u00fcr Rechtsgeschichte, Kanonistische Ab- teilung, 99, 1982, pp. 219\u2013276. \u2014\u2014. \u201cFiadoni, Bartholomeo.\u201d In Dizionario biografico degli Italiani, Vol. 47. Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1997, pp. 317\u2013320. Taurisano, Innocenzo M. I domenicani in Lucca. Lucca: Baroni, 1914, pp. 59\u201376. Witt, Thomas. \u201cK\u00f6nig Rudolf von Habsburg und Papst Nikolaus III. \u2018Erbreichsplan\u2019 und \u2018Vierstaatenprojekt\u2019 insbesondere bei Tholomeus von Lucca, Humbert of Romans, und Bernard Gui.\u201d Dissertation, G\u00f6ttingen, 1957. Charles T. Davis 548","Q QASMU\u02c9 NA BINT ISMA\u00af \u2018\u00afIL Critics have pointed out some Biblical resonances in Qasmu\u00afna\u2019s poems. They also have underscored the fact Qasmu\u00afna was the first known Jewish woman writer that her poems seem to alude to the importance of mar- on the Iberian Peninsula. She is believed to have been riage for women, a very Jewish concept. In effect, her the daughter of the famous eleventh-century poet, two other poems are laments about her loneliness. The Samuel Ha-Nagid (Ibn Nar\u00af\u0131llah), the vizier of the king first is about a garden which is going to waste without of Granada and the leader of the Jewish community. a gardener. Youth is passing by and the only thing that He apparently had four children, three sons and one remains is something the poet does not dare name. In daughter, Qasmu\u00afna, whom he instructed in the art of the second poem, she compares herself with a deer in a poetry. He reportedly often began a strophe and called garden. Critics have commented that her father seems on Qasmu\u00afna to finish it, a form of recreation common to have been too busy to select a son-in-law. However, among medieval Arabic peoples. Indeed the first of the one wonders if this is what Qasmu\u00afna was complaining three extant poems by Qasmu\u00afna is a reply to a short about. Obviously, she felt alienated, but her alienation poem by her father concerning someone who harms his might have been of a more profound nature. Being the benefactor. Qasmu\u00afna\u2019s clever response compares that daughter of a powerful Jewish official in an Arab court person with the moon, which receives its light from the must not have been easy. Being a talented woman with sun and yet sometimes eclipses it. Tradition has it that, no outlet for her talent must have been even more dif- upon hearing this, her father said she was a greater poet ficult. Qasmu\u00af na could be talking about her spiritual than he was. isolation and the waste of her talent. The deer is a rest- less animal meant to be free, not confined in a garden, However, Samuel Ha-Nagid wrote his poems in however pleasant. What Qasmu\u00afna does not dare name Hebrew, while Qasmu\u00afna wrote hers in Arabic. As a could be her frustration. Jewish woman, she had no access to Hebrew poetry and certainly no audience for it, even if she had written it. On Further Reading the other hand, as a member of the court in Granada, she did have access to Arabic poetry, as well as an audience Garulo, T., Diwan de las poetisas de al-Andalus. Madrid, of like-minded women poets. Indeed, although Jewish, 1986. she is considered one of the foremost Arabic women poets of Al-Andalus. Sobh, M., Poetisas ar\u00e1bigo-andaluzas. Granada, n.d. Cristina Gonz\u00e1lez 549","","R RABANUS MAURUS not the Song of Songs), the Major Prophets, Maccabees, the Gospel of Matthew, the Acts of the Apostles, and (HRABANUS, RHABANUS, ALSO the Pauline epistles. These are composites of patristic sources, but the extracts from the various patristic KNOWN AS MAGNENTIUS; ca. 780\u2013856). works are carefully arranged so as to present allegori- cal interpretations, mostly having to do with Christ and Born in Mainz of a noble family, Rabanus (which means the church, in a coherent and easily accessible form. \u201craven\u201d in Old High German) received the best educa- These interpretations were widely read before the tion available in his day. A favorite pupil of Alcuin, he modern period; they survive in many manuscripts and was called \u201cMaurus\u201d after a disciple of St. Benedict. in printed versions through the 16th century. For his Rabanus moved in the highest circles of power of the role as a Christian educator, Rabanus earned the title Carolingian world. He became abbot of Fulda in 822 praeceptor Germaniae. and solicited the patronage of Lothair I to make this one of the outstanding monastic foundations of the See also Alcuin; Isidore of Seville, Saint; age. Rabanus supported Louis the Pious in the political Lothair I, Louis the Pious turmoil of the 830s and 840s, and Lothair I on Louis\u2019s death. The victory of Louis the German in 840 forced Further Reading him into exile for about a year; upon his return to Ger- man lands, he retired to the abbey of Petersburg until Rabanus Maurus. Omnia opera. PL 107\u201312. named archbishop of Mainz in 847. \u2014\u2014. Liber de laudibus sanctae crucis. In Vollst\u00e4ndige Faksimile- Rabanus was a prolific author and the teacher of some Ausgabe im Original-format des Codex Vindobonensis 652 of the most outstanding of the Carolingian scholars, der \u00d6sterreichischen Nationalbibliothek, commentary by Kurt among them Walafrid Strabo. Many of his works have Holter. 2 vols. Graz: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, a pedagogical intent. De institutione clericorum (before 1972\u201373. 819) covers ecclesiastical grades, liturgy, liturgical vest- \u2014\u2014. The Life of Saint Mary Magdalene and of Her Sister Saint ments, catechetical instruction, and the Liberal Arts. De Martha: A Twelfth-Century Biography, trans. David Mycoff. rerum naturis (after 840; also known as De universo) is Kalamazoo: Cistercian, 1989. an encyclopedic work in the style of Isidore of Seville \u2014\u2014. Martyrologium, ed. John McCulloh, and Liber de com- but with an allegorical level of interpretation. His ex- puto, ed. Wesley M. Stevens. CCCM 44. Turnhout: Brepols, tensive corpus of poetry includes a number of carmina 1979. figurata, in which the words of poems are arranged in \u2014\u2014. Poems. MGH Poetae 2.154\u2013258. designs to illustrate them. However, it is for his bibli- Kottje, Raymund, and Harald Zimmermann. Hrabanus Maurus: cal interpretation that Rabanus was most famous in the Lehrer, Abt und Bischof. Mainz: Akademie der Wissenschaften Middle Ages and early-modern period, even though und der Literatur, 1982. this material has not been widely studied by modern Laistner, Max Ludwig Wolfram. Thought and Letters in Western scholars. Europe, A.D. 500 to 900. London: Methuen, 1957. M\u00fcller, Hans-Georg. Hrabanus Maurus: De laudibus sancta Rabanus wrote commentaries on most books of the crucis. Studien zur \u00dcberlieferung und Geistesgeschichte Bible: all of the historical books of the Old Testament, mit dem Faksimile-Textabdruck aus Codex Reg. Lat 124 der many of the books of wisdom literature (significantly, vatikanischen Bibliothek. Ratingen: Henn, 1973. 551","RABANUS MAURUS van Woerkum, M. \u201cFlorentius Radewijns. Schets van zijn leven, geschriften, persoonlijkheid en idee\u00ebn.\u201d Ons Geestelijk Erf Szoverffy, Josef. Weltliche Dichtungen des lateinsichen Mittelal- 24 (1950): 337\u2013346. ters: Ein Handbuch. Berlin: Schmidt, 1970, Vol. 1. \u2014\u2014. \u201cHet Libellus \u2018Omnes, inquit, artes\u2019: een rapiarium Turnau, Dietrich W. Rabanus Maurus, der Praeceptor Ger- van Florentius Radewijns.\u201d Ons Geestelijk Erf\u2019 25 (1951): maniae. Munich: Lindauer, 1900. 113\u2013158, 225\u2013268. E. Ann Matter \u2014\u2014. \u201cFlorent Radewijns,\u201d in Dictionnaire de Spiritualit\u00e9, ed. Marcel Viller, vol. 5. Paris: Beauchesne, 1964, pp. RADEWIJNS, FLORENS 427\u2013434. (ca. 1350\u20131400) Thom Mertens Exponent of the Modern Devotion, founder of the Breth- ren of the Common Life, founder of the monastery of RAINALD OF DASSEL (ca. 1120\u20131167) Windesheim. Radewijns was born circa 1350 at Leerdam or Gorinchem and died at Deventer in 1400. He studied From 1156 until his death in 1167, Rainald of Dassel at Prague (master of arts) and became a canon in Utre- was Frederick Barbarossa\u2019s most loyal and powerful cht. After a sermon of Geert Grote, he converted and adviser. Born to a family of Lower Saxon lesser nobility accepted the lower position of vicar at Deventer, where circa 1120, Rainald was educated first at the Hildesheim Grote lived. For this vicariat he had to be ordained priest. cathedral school, then in France in the 1140s. He re- He became the first leader of a congregation of Brethren turned to Hildesheim by 1146. Rainald cultivated an of the Common Life. These Brethren gave guidance to interest in arts and letters and would become the chief a convict of schoolboys. patron of the \u201cArchpoet\u201d circa 1060. Radewijns compilated two little treatises, which In 1156, Barbarossa chose Rainald as imperial are important because they influenced the treatises chancellor. Rainald straightway committed himself to of his housemate Gerard Zerbolt of Zutphen. These the Hohenstaufen agenda of rejecting papal claims to widely spread treatises gave the Modern Devotion its primacy and establishing German imperial hegemony spiritual fundament. We also have some fragments of over northern Italy. Rainald\u2019s leadership led to innova- Radewijns\u2019s letters. He also wrote a (lost?) propositum, tions in the chancery almost immediately, including a set of personal intentions. the use of the phrase sacrum imperium (Holy Empire) and its variants. In Radewijns\u2019s spirituality, humility is a central theme. The idea of externals pulling along the inner Rainald played a consistently dramatic role in inter- man leads to a severe asceticism, as did the idea that national relations after his elevation to the chancellor- a humble inner self has to reflect itself in humble and ship. In 1157, papal legatees met Barbarossa\u2019s court in austere exteriors. By fasting and waking Radewijns had Besan\u00e7on to protest the imprisonment of Archbishop broken his weak nature and almost lost his sense of taste Eskil of Lund. The Latin text of Pope Adrian IV\u2019s let- and his appetite. This severe asceticism is colored by ter suggested that the imperial crown numbered among the spirituality of the Desert Fathers, which also seems many possible beneficia that could be given by the to have influenced his fear of the demon. In his young pope. Rainald\u2019s translation of the document deliber- days Thomas \u00e0 Kempis lived together with Radewijns. ately rendered beneficium as \u201cfief\u201d (lehen) rather than In his biography of Radewijns, Thomas portrays him as \u201cgood work\u201d or \u201cfavor,\u201d Adrian\u2019s intended meaning. a man who incites both love and fear with his straight- The subsequent uproar led to a propaganda victory for forwardness. Rainald and a clear formulation of the imperial position: empire derived from election by the princes and the See also Thomas \u00e0 Kempis grace of God, not papal coronation, which was simply a ceremonial act incumbent upon the pope. Further Reading Elected archbishop of Cologne at Barbarossa\u2019s in- Goossens, Leonardus A. M., ed. De meditatie in de eerste tijd van stigation in 1159, Rainald did not actually take major de Moderne Devotie. Haarlem: Gottmer, 1952, pp. 213\u2013254 orders until 1165. Rainald\u2019s uncompromising attitude [Tractatulus devotus]. toward the Roman curia led Barbarossa to reject con- ciliatory papal offers; the result was formal schism with \u00c9piney-Burgard, Georgette. \u201cFlorent Radewijns,\u201d in Die deutsche the election of the antipope Victor IV in 1159. In 1162, Literatur des Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon, ed. Kurt Ruh et Rainald oversaw the brutal destruction of Milan, upon al. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2d ed. vol. 7, coll. 968\u2013972. whose unconditional surrender he had insisted. Within a few months, however, he had to preside over the failed \u2014\u2014. \u201cLa Vie et les \u00e9crits de Florent Radewijns en langue ver- synod of Saint Jean de Losne, convoked to resolve the naculaire.\u201d Ons Geestelijk Erf 63 (1989): 370\u2013384. papal crisis, but ending in a diplomatic victory for Pope Alexander III, who stubbornly refused to appear and be Pohl, Michael J., ed. Thomae Hemerken a Kempis Opera Om- nia. Freiburg: Herder, 1902\u20131922, vol. 7, pp. 116\u2013210 [with bibliography]. Post, Regnerus R. The Modern Devotion. Leyden: Brill, 1968, pp. 317\u2013325. 552","RAM\u00d3N BERENGUER IV, COUNT OF BARCELONA judged. In April 1164, in Lucca, Rainald orchestrated 1137 and 1140; at these meetings, he swore allegiance the election of another antipope, Paschal III. In July to the city of Zaragoza, and prepared a joint expedition 1164, Rainald brought the relics of the Three Kings against Navarre. Thanks to the diplomatic activities of from Milan to Cologne, where they became the object Oleguer, archbishop of Tarragona, and the seneschal of a major cult. Late in 1165, Rainald presided over Guillem Ram\u00f3n de Montcada, the count of Barcelona the canonization of Charlemagne in Aachen, the most symbolized the union of the counties inherited from his dramatic step taken in the programmatic sacralization father with the kingdom of Alfonso I. The Catalano- of Barbarossa\u2019s imperial rule. Arag\u00f3nese confederation depended on a reciprocal respect for the institutions belonging to each territory. Rainald\u2019s uncompromising policy toward the papacy meant that only open conflict could decide the schism. Ram\u00f3n Berenguer IV concentrated henceforward on In July 1167, the imperial army won a major victory the struggle against Islam. With Alfonso VII he partici- at Tusculum. Rome was taken, and Alexander III fled pated in the expeditions to Murcia (1144) and Almer\u00ed\u2019a in disguise. Triumph was short-lived, however: an epi- (1147). He later directed campaigns intended to extend demic, probably malaria, decimated the German host, his principalities. In 1148 he took Tortosa where the help killing Rainald and several other princes. Barbarossa of Guillem Ram\u00f3n de Montcada, of the Genoese fleet, returned to Germany with what was left of his army. The and of contingents from Languedoc was decisive for the political approach of the rest of his reign was markedly success of this expedition, recognized by Pope Eugene more flexible than it had been during the era of Rainald III as a true crusade. Franchises accorded to the city at- of Dassel. tracted new inhabitants, while an arrangement with the qa\u00afd\u00af\u0131 and the fuqaha\u00af\u2019 ensured the respect of the Muslim See also Frederick I Barbarossa population. On 24 October 1149, the cities of Fraga and Lleida also fell before the troops of Ram\u00f3n Berenguer Further Reading IV and Ermengol VII of Urgell. Between 1152 and 1153 Miravet was conquered, and the surviving pockets of Engels, Odilo. Die Staufer, 4th ed. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, Islamic resistance destroyed. Ibn Marda\u00afnish, king of Va- 1989. lencia, then swore allegiance to the count of Barcelona, to whom he payed a large tribute. The Ebro River was Ficker, Julius. Reinald von Dassel: Reichskanzler und Erzbischof reached; Ram\u00f3n Berenguer IV considerably extended von K\u00f6ln 1156\u20131167. Cologne, 1850; rpt. Aalen: Scientia, the territory of New Catalonia beyond Tarragona. The 1966. same thing happened in Arag\u00f3n, where he annexed Huesca (1154) and Alc\u00e1\u00f1iz (1157). Grebe, Werner. \u201cStudien zur geistigen Welt Rainalds von Das- sel.\u201d Annalen des Historischen Vereins f\u00fcr den Niederrhein His political activities were continued beyond the 171 (1969): 5\u201344. Pyrenees; the families of B\u00e9ziers-Carcassonne, of Nar- bonne and of Montpellier paid homage to him. In 1154 Munz, Peter. Frederick Barbarossa: A Study in Medieval Politics. he became the tutor of Gaston V of B\u00e9arn; he fought London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1969. successfully at Toulouse, to which he laid siege with Henri Plantagenet II in 1156. But most of his activities Jonathan Rotondo-McCord took place in Provence. In 1144, his brother Berenguer Ram\u00f3n, count of Provence was killed in his wars against RAM\u00d3N BERENGUER IV, COUNT the count of Toulouse and the family of Baux, as well as OF BARCELONA (c. 1114\u20131162) Genoa and Pisa. His son, Ram\u00f3n Berenguer of Provence, was still a minor and was powerless against so many On the death of his father in 1131, the young Ram\u00f3n enemies. In February 1147 Ram\u00f3n Berenguer IV came Berenguer IV became the count of Barcelona at the age to his aid; the leading nobles swore that they would of seventeen. The first major event of his reign was the be faithful to him. He wiped out Ramon of Baux, and union of the Catalan principalities with the neighboring brought him back in captivity to Catalonia. Three more Kingdom of Arag\u00f3n. In 1134 Alfonso I the Batallador wars were necessary to put an end to the seditious revolt died childless, and this raised the problem of who was to of Ramon\u2019s wife, Stephania of Baux, their children, and succeed him. His will, leaving his goods to the military their associates. During the summer of 1155 he took orders, could not be applied; and this, together with their castle at Trinquetaille; at the beginning of 1162, the marriage of Ramiro, the brother of Alfonso I, made he laid siege to the fortress of Baux and conquered it. Alfonso VII of Castile give up all hope of succeeding to He then ensured that Frederick Barbarossa recognized the throne. In August 1137 Petronella, born of Ramiro\u2019s Catalan dominion in Provence, ordering the marriage of recent marriage, was immediately promised to Ram\u00f3n his niece Riquilda and his nephew Ram\u00f3n Berenguer of Berenguer, who became prince of Aragon; the marriage took place in 1150. In 1140 the holy see and the mili- tary orders gave up their rights over Arag\u00f3n. It was by diplomatic means that Ram\u00f3n Berenguer IV ended his disagreement with the king of Castile, whom he met in 553","RAM\u00d3N BERENGUER IV, COUNT OF BARCELONA Provence. It was during the journey to Turin, where he RAOUL DE HOUDENC (fl. 1210\u201320) was to meet the emperor, that Ramon Berenguer IV met his death in Borgo San Dalmazzo, on 6 August 1162. Radulfus de Hosdenc, miles, of Hodenc-en-Bray (Beauvaisis), was the author of an Arthurian romance The work of Ram\u00f3n Berenguer IV was fundamental of 5,938 octosyllabic lines, Meraugis de Portlesguez, on institutional and administrative levels. During his and three short didactic poems, the Songe d\u2019enfer, youth, in order to oppose the revolt of the Catalan aris- the Roman des eles, and a Dit. A second Arthurian tocracy, he convened the Assemblies of Peace and Truce. romance, the Vengeance Raguidel (6,182 lines), whose He organized the management of his domain in such author names himself as \u201cRaols\u201d is probably also by a way as to increase his financial resources, which he Raoul de Houdenc. Raoul is one of the most talented needed for his expansionary policy. An inspection car- of the Chr\u00e9tien epigones, and Meraugis de Portlesguez, ried out by Bertran of Castellet in Old Catalonia in 1151 concerned with the rivalry of two friends for the love furnished him with a precise inventory of the revenues of the fair Lidoine, is one of the best examples of the of his domains; these were administered by bailiffs genre. Both Meraugis and the Vengeance Raguidel, (batlles) or by creditors who accepted them as pay- which is concerned with the avenging of a murdered ment. His vicars (vicaris) mainly brought him the fines knight called Raguidel, can best be seen as the work of imposed by tribunals, the tolls levied, and the parias an author coming to grips with the specter of Chr\u00e9tien de (tributes) of the Muslim chiefs. Justice was henceforth Troyes. All kinds of humor abound in the two romances, carried out by specialists in law, who applied the Usatges as well as in the short didactic pieces. The Songe d\u2019enfer de Barcelona, a Roman legal code that he had just pro- is a vision of Hell notable for a particularly gruesome mulgated. The Usatges established the monopoly of the banquet and some allegorical heraldry; the Roman des count as regards certain royal rights; castles, mint, and eles is a guide to courtoisie. Raoul was acknowledged, organization of the peace were under his control. The along with Chr\u00e9tien, to be one of the greatest French ecclesiastical map was redrawn; the bishoprics of Tor- poets by Huon de M\u00e9ry in the Tournoiement Ant\u00e9crist tosa and of L\u00e9rida (Lleida) were reestablished instead (ca. 1230). of Roda-Barbastro. In 1154, the metropolitan province of Tarragona, including all the Catalan and Arag\u00f3nese See also Chr\u00e9tien de Troyes bishoprics, was also reestablished. Cistercian monks from Grandselve and from Fontfroide founded Santes Further Reading Creus and Poblet in New Catalonia; the Templars and Hospitalers, who had received indemnities for their re- Raoul de Houdenc. \u201cLi dis Raoul Hosdaing,\u201d ed. Charles H. nunciation of Alfonso I\u2019s will, were also given domains Livingston. Romanic Review 13 (1922): 292\u2013304. on the frontier. The count welcomed to his court the first Catalan troubadours, Berenguer of Palol and Guerau of \u2014\u2014. The Songe d\u2019enfer of Raoul de Houdenc, ed. Madelyn Cabrera. In 1162 he was praised in the first version of the Timmel Mihm. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1984. Gesta comitum barchinonensium, drawn up at Ripoll. In 1157, on the death of Alfonso VII of Castilla-Le\u00f3n, \u2014\u2014. \u201cLe roman des eles\u201d: The Anonymous \u201cOrdene de Cheval- Ram\u00f3n Berenguer IV had become the most important erie,\u201d ed. Keith Busby. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1983. of the Iberian kings, and the arbiter of their struggles; he had a preponderant role in Occitania. His reign laid \u2014\u2014. S\u00e4mtliche Werke, ed. Mathias Friedwagner. 2 vols. Halle: the basis for the great Mediterranean expansion of the Niemeyer, 1897\u20131909, Vol. 1: Meraugis de Portlesguez; Vol. Catalano-Arag\u00f3nese confederation. 2: La vengeance Raguidel. Further Reading Schmolke-Hasselmann, Beate. Der arthurische Versroman von Chrestien bis Froissart. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1980, pp. Aurell, M. \u201cL\u2019expansion catalane en Provence au XIIe si\u00e8cle.\u201d In 106\u201315, 117\u201329. La formaci\u00f3 i expansi\u00f3 del feudalisme catal\u00e0. Ed. J. Portella. Girona, 1985. 175\u2013197. Keith Busby Bisson, T. N. Fiscal Accounts of Catalonia under the Early RAOUL GLABER (ca. 985\u2013ca. 1046) Count-Kings (1151\u20131213). Berkeley, 1984. Born in Burgundy, perhaps out of wedlock, Raoul en- \u2014\u2014\u2014. The Medieval Crown of Arag\u00f3n: A Short History. Ox- tered the monastery of Saint-Germain of Auxerre when ford, 1986. he was about twelve. By nature restive and averse to discipline, he wandered from monastery to monastery, Schramm, P. E., J. F. Cabestany, and E. Bagu\u00e9. Els primers com- where, thanks to his literary talents, he was welcomed. tesreis; Ramon Berenguer IV. Alfons el Cast, Pere el Cat\u00f2lic. From ca. 1015 to 1031, he was the traveling compan- Barcelona, 1963. ion of William of Volpiano, abbot of Saint-B\u00e9nigne of Dijon and one of the foremost monastic reformers of Soldevila, F. Hist\u00f2ria de Catalunya. 2nd ed. Barcelona, 1963. the day. At William\u2019s command, he began a history of the prodigies and wonders surrounding the advent of Mart\u00ed Aukell i Cardona the year 1000, which he kept with him and added to for the rest of his life. After William\u2019s death, Raoul spent 554","time at Cluny (ca. 1031\u201335), then briefly at B\u00e9ze, finally \u201cRASHI\u201d (SOLOMON B. ISAAC) returning to Auxerre. Mart\u00ed and by the Christian Hebraists Sebastian M\u00fcnster In addition to his Latin Five Books of Histories, and Johannes Buxtorf, and (less incorrectly) \u201cha-Rav Glaber wrote a hagiographical vita of William and some ha-S. arfatiy\u201d and \u201cShelomoh ha-S. arfatiy\u201d by Asher b. epigraphy that, due to the jealousy of the monks, was Saul and by Abraham b. Moses b. Maimon (son of Mai- destroyed. He seems to have had difficult relations with monides), Abraham b. David of Posqui\u00e8res referred to a number of people, including his mentor, William, and him simply as \u201cha-S. arfatiy.\u201d He was the first to compose some of his independence of mind shows up in his writ- a detailed and complete commentary, almost line by ing. His history, dedicated in a later recension to Odilo of line, on the Talmud (except for parts not finished before Cluny, began with the year 900 and presented the history he died). He is also famous for his commentary on the of the German emperors and French kings, which, as it Torah and on several other books of the Bible, although reached Raoul\u2019s own time (Books 3\u20134), included events in fact these commentaries have been overpraised. In from all over the known world and, in his old age (Book addition, he wrote some responsa, or legal decisions, 5), included a brief autobiography and anecdotes about which are of importance also as a reflection of historical anonymous people. Several accounts of the same global conditions. The first known printed Hebrew book was material also appear in the independently composed but the commentary of \u201cRashi\u201d on the Torah, but contrary to contemporary history of Ad\u00e9mar de Chabannes. what virtually every scholar who has written on \u201cRashi\u201d says, this was not the Reggio (Italy) edition (1475), but Often criticized for inaccuracy, gossip, disorgani- Rome, ca. 1470\u201372 (printed by Ovadyah b. Moses and zation, and prodigy mongering by modern political the brothers Menasseh and Benjamin). This was fol- historians, Raoul has proven a rich source for social lowed by the Reggio edition, and almost immediately history and mentalities; his theology of history, though by an edition in Spain (1476), both without the biblical crude, prefigures such 12th-century historians as Hugh text; the first edition of the text and commentary was in of Saint-Victor, Otto of Freising, and Joachim of Fiore. 1482 (additions to the commentary, found in the Spanish Raoul is best known for his apocalyptic interpretation Guadalajara and Ixar [H\u00edjar] editions, were reproduced of the two millennial dates 1000 (Incarnation) and 1033 in Kiryat sefer 61 [1986\u20137]: 533\u201335). \u201cRashi\u201d\u2019s com- (Passion), which he linked to mass manifestations of mentaries were unknown to Maimonides, and generally religious fervor\u2014heresy, church building, pilgrimage in Spain until relatively late; however, in Germany he (especially to Jerusalem), and the Peace of God move- was highly regarded. Meir b. Barukh of Rothenburg ment. He has accordingly suffered from polemical treat- wrote of him \u201cfrom his waters [commentaries] we drink ment at the hands of modern historians opposed to the every day\u201d (responsa, Cremona ed., No. 137). An old romantic notion of the \u201cterrors of the year 1000.\u201d saying has it that \u201call the commentaries of France may be thrown in the trash except those of Parshandata and See also Hugh of Saint-Victor; Joachim of Fiore; ben Porata\u201d Parshandata, of course, is \u201cRashi\u201d (for Otto of Freising the saying, see Azulai, Shem ha-gedoliym, s.v. \u201cRashi,\u201d and other sources). As for ben Porata (Joseph), this has Further Reading been thought to refer to Joseph T.ov \u2018Elem of France (contemporary of Rashi, a rabbi in Limoges; however, Raoul Glaber. Les cinq livres de ses histoires (900\u20131044), ed. he is not known to have written any commentaries), but Maurice Prou. Paris: Picard, 1886. S. D. Luzzatto (Beit ha-os. ar [1881], p. 100) was surely correct in his opinion that it refers rather to Joseph \u2014\u2014. Rodulfus Glaber opera, ed. John France, Neithard Bulst, Qara, a student of \u201cRashi\u201d and possibly the editor of his and Paul Reynolds. Oxford: Clarendon, 1989. commentary on the Torah, who wrote commentaries on most of the Bible. \u2014\u2014. Rodolfo il Glabro: Cronche dell\u2019anno mille (storie), ed. Guglielmo Cavallo and Giovanni Orlandi. Milan, 1989. \u201cRashi\u201d studied at Mayence (Mainz) in Germany, where the yeshivah was headed by Jacob b. Yaqar and France, J. \u201cRodulfus Glaber and the Cluniacs.\u201d Journal of Eccle- Isaac b. Judah, pupils of Rabbe\u00afnu Gershom (Gershom b. siastical History 39 (1988): 497\u2013507. judah). Another teacher of \u201cRashi\u201d was Isaac ha-Levy, about whom little is known. Gershom\u2019s students had col- Iogna-Prat, D., and R. Ortigues. \u201cRaoul Glaber et l\u2019historiographie lected his oral comments on the Talmud as they studied clunisienne.\u201d Studi medievali 3rd ser. 26 (1985): 437\u201372. with him, and this written collection was known as \u201c Qun.tres Magenza\u201d (or Collection of Mayence), and was Richard Landes used by Natan of Rome in his famous talmudic diction- ary \u2018Arukh. Later in Italy it was attributed to Gershom \u201cRASHI\u201d (SOLOMON B. ISAAC) himself, and it was printed in the famous Vilna Talmud (c. 1040- 1105) edition (and see A. Epstein\u2019s introduction to Ma\u2018aseh Solomon b. Isaac, known by the acronym \u201cRashi\u201d Rabbi Shelomoh [b.] Yis.h.aq), was born ca. 1040 in Troyes (in the county of Champagne in France) and died in 1105- He was wrongly referred to as \u201cSolomon ha-Yarh. iy\u201d (i.e., from Lunel) by the Dominican polemicist Ram\u00f3n 555","\u201cRASHI\u201d (SOLOMON B. ISAAC) possible that the editor Menah. em whose name appears in Parde\u00afs\u2014see f. 13b and No. 166, also possibly No. ha-geonim, ed. J. Freimann [Berlin, 1909], p. xiii; and 150\u2014was that Menah. em b. Makhiyr, since he mentions see there pp. xxi\u2013ii for citations from \u201cRashi\u201d in that \u201cRashi\u201d specifically. work). \u201cRashi\u201d returned to Troyes where he served as rabbi and head of an important yeshivah, which essen- There is no doubt that \u201cRashi\u201d\u2019s talmudic com- tially replaced those of Mayence and worms (where he mentary, in addition to making sometimes obscure may also have studied), which were destroyed in the statements clear (or clearer, at least), helped establish a attack on Jews during the First Crusade (see Crusades) more accurate text. The text had become corrupted and in 1096. interpolated over the centuries, and \u201cRashi\u201d utilized Rabbe\u00afnu Gershom\u2019s autograph corrected copy, and \u201cRashi\u201d had only daughters (two or three), one of also other manuscripts. Because of the great amount of whom married Meir b. Samuel. All of their children were contact between Italy and France, \u201cRashi\u201d also knew of scholars, the most famous being Samuel (\u201cRashbam\u201d) Italian Jewish scholarship, and cites Italian commen- and Jacob (\u201cRabbe\u00afnu Tam\u201d). Another daughter, Miriam, taries on the Talmud (still unpublished) as peirush, or married Judah b. Natan, whose commentary on the last qun.tres, Romiy. Contrary to what has sometimes been pages of the talmudic tractate Makkot is in the printed claimed, he did not know of Natan of Rome\u2019s \u2018Arukh, editions (the legend that one of Rashi\u2019s daughters wrote although his students later did. Nevertheless, he was in the commentary on Nedarim may perhaps be a confu- frequent contact with Natan and he addressed inquiries sion with Judah\u2019s commentary on that tractate). The to him, according to Isaac b. Moses of Vienna (thirteenth commentary on chapter 10 of Sanhedrin ascribed century, author of Or zarua\u2019) and others. Although to Rashi is also apparently by Judah (see J. N. Epstein\u2019s \u201cRashi\u201d did not, of course, know Arabic and relied on article on Judah\u2019s commentaries in Tarbiz 4 [1932], the often erroneous views of Menah. em b. Saruq and, and Saul Lieberman, Sheqi\u2018in [Shki\u2018in as cataloged less frequently, Dunash Ibn Labrat., especially in his by libraries; 1939, rpt. 1970], pp. 92\u201396; and Ch. biblical commentaries, his own grammatical explana- Merh. aviah, \u201cRashi\u2019s commentary to \u2018H. eleq\u2019\u201d [Heb.], tions are sometimes valuable (see, e.g., his lengthy Tarbiz 33 [1964]: 259\u201386). discussion of the possible meanings of the conjunction kiy, in Teshuvot, ed. Elfenbein, No. 251). While \u201cRashi\u201d is best known to the non-Jewish world for his biblical commentary, in fact his commentary on The authentic commentary of \u201cRashi\u201d is only on the the Talmud is far more important and has earned him his following tractates: Berakhot, Shabbat, \u2018Eruvin, Pesah. place as one of the foremost scholars in Jewish history. im (chs. 1\u20139), Yoma, Sukkah, Beis. ah, Rosh ha-Shannah, In addition to these works, he also wrote many responsa, Megillah, H. agigah, Yevamot, Ketuvot, So.tah, Gi.t.tin, a siddur\u2014not actually a prayer book but rather a running Qidduskin, B.Q., B.M., B.B. (to fol. 29a), Sanhedrin compendium of laws and customs relating to blessings, (chs. 1\u20139), Makkot (to fol. 19a), Shevu\u2018ot, \u2018A.Z., Zevah. prayers, holidays, etc. in the manner of similar works im, Menah. ot, H. ullin, Bekhorot, \u2018Arakin, Temurah, and by the Geonim Sa\u2018adyah and Amram\u2014and other legal Niddah. The commentary on Ta\u2019anit is doubtful, while rulings and customs, recorded actually by his students that on Zevah. im is in fact only partly by him (variant in Se\u00affer ha-orah and Parde\u00afs. (It has been argued that readings are also recorded in the Diqduqei sofrim). On Se\u00affer ha-orah was probably written in Provence, but this Menah. ot one should see the commentary attributed is unlikely since several statements indicate a French to Ibn Adret, and also the new text of \u201cRashi\u201d\u2019s com- origin; it contains statements also found in the Siddur, mentary in the Vilna edition. \u201cRashi\u201d is said to have but sometimes corrupted; Abraham Epstein earlier written a commentary also on Nedarim, but it is lost observed that it is first cited by fourteenth-century Span- (see above on the legend that his daughter wrote that ish authorities, which is not true, and may even have commentary). In the printed text of B.B. 29a is written been written in Spain, but this is even more unlikely. On \u201chere Rashi died,\u201d but in other manuscripts it is \u201cto here Parde\u00afs, see A. Ehrenreich\u2019s introduction to his edition, Rashi commented\u201d: not that he died but that he did not and V. Aptowitzer, \u201cZu \u201cRaschi\u201ds Pardes,\u201d Zeitschrift complete the commentary beyond that point. However, f\u00fcr hebraischen Bibliografie 20 [1917]: 14\u201316. Much it does appear that he died while writing the commentary of this work, and the Se\u00affer ha-orah, was taken from on Makkot (f. 19b). The printed commentary on Mo\u2018ed the Ma\u2018aseh geoniym, written shortly after the time of qa.tan is not by \u201cRashi\u201d but by Gershom b. Judah; how- \u201cRashi.\u201d Another important source was the collection ever, the actual commentary of Rashi on that tractate Ma\u2018aseh ha-Makhiyriy, by the sons of Makhiyr, has been published (ed. E. Kupfer, Jerusalem, 1961). brothet of Gershom b. Judah, which recorded the A commentary on Mashkin attributed to \u201cRashi\u201d was customs of the sages of their time and was probably published in 1939 (rpt. 1969). edited by Menah.em b. Makhiyr (see Leopold Zunz, Literaturgeschichte der synagogalen Poesie [Berlin, \u201cRashi\u201d\u2019s talmudic commentaries, unlike those on the 1865], pp. 158, 161; Raphael Straus, Regensburg and Bible, had an almost immediate and lasting impact on Augsburg [1939], p. 51). On the other hand, it is not 556"]