Key Figures in Medieval Europe - An Encyclopedia

W WACE (ca. 1100–after 1174) Caen, Robert, son of Tiout; containing twenty-three independent episodes, without any advancement in time, Born on the island of jersey, Wace received his training it testifies to the popularity of the saint in Normandy in first at Caen, then at Paris or, less likely, at Chartres; the first half of the 12th century. The three poems, all in the influence of Hugh of Saint-Victor on his work is rhymed octosyllabic lines, can be dated ca. 1135–50. evident. Early in the 1130s, maistre Wace returned to Caen, where he occupied the position of clerc lisant (this Wace’s reputation as an adapter of Latin works on term, used by Wace himself, most likely meant “reader popular topics might have brought him the commission of the lessons in the church service”); between 1165 and by Eleanor of Aquitaine, newly wed to Henry II, to 1169, King Henry II of England rewarded him for his “translate” Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historic reg’um literary work with the prebend of a canon at Bayeux. Britanniae (ca. 1136). Wace could not immediately He must have sojourned in England, since he knew the locate a copy of this text and consequently based most English language and gives precise geographical details of his adaptation on the Britannici sermonis liber of that country, especially of the Dorset area. Charters at vetustissimus (possibly by the archdeacon Walter of Bayeux that bear his signature are not helpful in more Oxford, a close friend of Geoffrey of Monmouth who precisely dating his life, which is known exclusively is mentioned by Geffrei Gaimar), written in the early from personal remarks in his Roman de Rou. 1130s with the intent of ingratiating the Celtic part of the population with the new Norman rulers by stressing Wace began his literary career with a series of ha- the Britons’ claim to Britain, tracing its history back giographical poems, of which three, signed by him, are to the Trojans, in particular to Aeneas, with the help preserved. From his stay in England, the center of St. of early Welsh chronicles and Nennius. According to Margaret’s cult, he probably brought back a Vie de sainte these sources, Brutus (folk etymology of Brytt ‘Briton’), Marguerite (742 lines), the first and stylistically by far Aeneas’s great-grandson, led the Trojans out of Greek the best of thirteen verse adaptations of this legend into captivity to Britain; the Liber vetustissimus then de- French. His Conception Nostre Dame (1,810 lines) was picted the legendary history of Brutus’s descendants designated as propaganda in favor of the establishment on this island through the 8th century, when the Celts of the feast of the Immaculate Conception, as furthered had to abandon all hope of reconquering the country by Abbot Anselm of Bury-Saint-Edmunds (r. 1121–46) from the Anglo-Saxons. It was this text that Geoffrey against formidable opposition, especially from St. Ber- reedited and brought to renown thanks to the interest nard of Clairvaux. As a Norman, Wace would have had of the Norman dynasty in the predecessors of the An- great interest in the life of the Virgin, for the Normans glo-Saxons, renown that also had its repercussions on were among the first in France to establish the feast of Wace’s Roman de Brut, or Geste des Bretons (1155), the Immaculate Conception, which was often called the since scribes of later manuscripts constantly altered the fete aux Normands. In the Conception Nostre Dame, text by increasingly modeling it on Geoffrey’s work. Wace introduces the technique of grouping different In the critical edition, the Roman de Brut is narrated episodes in one poem, in this case five that lead from in 14,866 octosyllabic verses; the manuscript Durham the establishment of the feast to the Assumption of the Cathedral C. iv. 1 (Anglo-Norman; 13th c.) inserts Virgin. The same technique is found in his Vie de saint 670 decasyllabic verses containing the prophecies of Nicolas (1,563 lines), written probably for a citizen of 657

WACE he also gives firsthand information concerning the reign of the Conqueror, such as details about William’s fleet Merlin related by a certain Elias; Lincoln Cathedral in 1066, having as a small child heard his father com- 104 (Anglo-Norman; 13th c.) adds 640 Alexandrines ment on it. The commission did not excite Wace: for of the same prophecies by a certain William; and B.L. a while, he even attempted another meter, the Alexan- Add. 45103 (Anglo-Norman; 13th c.) contains yet an- drine (one of the first authors, if not the first, to do so); other version of the prophecies, also in Alexandrines, the work thus advanced so slowly that Henry II grew and anonymous. B.N. fr. 1450 (Picard; 13th c.) goes impatient and commissioned the much younger Benoît even further and inserts between lines 9,798 and 9,799 de Sainte-Maure, whose Roman de Troie (ca. 1165) had Chrétien de Troyes’s romances Erec, Perceval, Cligés, superseded the Brut as a literary success, with the same Yvain, and Lancelot, in that order. task. Wace, bitterly disappointed, interrupted his work after having narrated the Battle of Tinchebrai, in which Wace is remarkably critical of his source, frequently Henry I defeated his older brother Robert Curthose and stressing that he is not certain of a fact; conversely, he annexed Normandy (1106). Since he mentions Henry romanticizes the dry events of history in order to make II’s siege of Rouen in 1174, it is assumed that he died them palatable to an audience of noble laypersons. In soon after that date. particular, his work contains several episodes that pres- age the spirit of courtly love, such as King Aganippus’s Wace is undoubtedly the most brilliant author of the love “from afar” for Cordeïlle, King Leïr’s youngest first period of Norman literature; the modern reader is daughter, or Uther Pendragon’s love from reputation also struck by his conscientiousness, honesty, and—for only for Ygerne; but he also stresses the catastrophic the period—highly critical, even scholarly approach to consequences of passion, illustrated, for example, by literature. the episodes of Locrin’s and Mordred’s adulterous relationships. Though he eliminates the most fantastic See also Benoît de Sainte-Maure; Bernard of elements in his source, such as Merlin’s prophecies, he Clairvaux; Chrétien de Troyes adds many picturesque details, among them a mention of the institution of the Round Table, a detail that to Further Reading date has not been satisfactorily explained. Wace’s work was enormously popular (twenty-six manuscripts have Wace. Le roman de Brut de Wace, ed. Ivor Arnold. 2 vols. Paris: preserved it in complete or fragmented, form), and ca. SATF, 1938–40. 1200 the priest Layamon of Raston in Worcestershire adapted it into Middle English, swelling it to nearly ——. The Conception Nostre Dame of Wace, ed. William Ray 30,000 lines; it is Layamon who reports that Wace had Ashford. Chicago: University of Chicago Libraries, 1933. dedicated his work to Eleanor, which is possible though not mentioned in the text. ——. Le roman de Rou de Wace, ed. Anthony J. Holden. 3 vols. Paris: Picard, 1970–73. While in the Roman de Brut Wace was highly suc- cessful in converting pseudohistory into narrative fic- ——, ed. Wace: La vie de sainte Marguerite, ed. Hans-Erich tion, he was less so in the Roman de Rou (i.e., Rollo), Keller. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1990. or Geste des Normands (11,440 octosyllabic lines; plus a prologue of 315 lines and the first 4,425 lines of ——.. La vie de saint Nicolas par Wace, poème religieux du Xlle the work, in Alexandrines; in addition, there exists the siècle, ed. Einar Ronsjö. Lund: Gleerup, 1942. first draft of a prologue in 750 octosyllabic lines). The work was commissioned by Henry II, who wanted a Keller, Hans-Erich. Étude descriptive sur le vocabulaire de Wace. poem similar to the Brut with respect to the history of Berlin: Akademie, 1953. Normandy. Wace especially had recourse to Dudo de Saint-Quentin’s unreliable De moribus et actis primo- ——. “The Intellectual Journey of Wace.” Fifteenth Century rum Normanniae ducum, from the first years of the 11th Studies 17 (1990): 185–207. century, Guillaume de Jumièges’s Gesta Normannorum ducum of 1071, Guillaume de Poitiers’s Gesta Guillelmi Pelan, Margaret. L’influence du “Brut” de Wace sur les romans (ca. 1078), and William of Malmesbury’s Gesta regum français de son temps. Paris: Droz, 1931. Anglorum of the first half of the 12th. Wace began the project in 1160. He was uncomfortable with real history Hans-Erich Keller and its sources, excelling only when he narrated legend- ary material, such as stories about Duke Richard I, the WALAFRID STRABO (ca. 808–849) Richard of Normandy in the Chanson de Roland, and events during the reigns of kings William II Rufus and A Carolingian scholar and poet, Walafrid (Strabo means Henry I (r. 1100–35), where he was a historian in his own “the squinter”) was born in Swabia and educated at right, drawing from personal information. Occasionally, Reichenau and later at Fulda under Rabanus Maurus. He served from 829 to 838 as tutor to Louis the Pious’s youngest son, Charles the Bald. After 838, he was the abbot of Reichenau; for political reasons, he was ex- pelled by Louis the German in 840 but reinstated in 842. Walafrid died on August 18, 849, crossing the Loire to visit his former student, Charles the Bald. To modern readers, Walafrid’s most famous works are his poems, including the Visio Wettini, a hexameter 658

treatment of visions of Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise WALTER OF CHÂTILLON written at the age of eighteen and dedicated to his former teacher, Wettin of Reichenau; and De cultura hortorum Although Walla¯dah’s lifestyle was unconventional, (or hortulus), a medicinal description and allegorical her poetry was not. In addition to panegyrical poems, interpretation of twenty-three herbs and flowers. Other a genre she seems not to have cultivated, satirical and poems include hagiography and praises of important love poems were very popular among the poets of al- people (including Louis the Pious and the empress Ju- Andalus. The works of women poets, for the most part, dith, mother of Charles the Bald). In the Middle Ages, took the form of a dialogue with their male counterparts. he was also famous for his exegesis, much of it based In accordance with this fashion, Walla¯dah’s love and on the longer works of Rabanus Maurus, including satirical poems consist of dialogues with Ibn Zaydu¯n. commentaries on the Pentateuch, the Psalms, and the However, if she followed established genres, she did canonical epistles. This exegesis remains in need of so with originality and flair. Walla¯dah held her own further critical study. The Glossa ordinaria, published against the best male poets of her time. Indeed, she was as a work of Walafrid in Migne’s Patrologia Latina, considered brilliant. Vols. 113–14, is now known to have been written in the 12th century and erroneously ascribed to Walafrid It is said that Walla¯dah had the following two verses in the 15th. embroidered on her tunic: “By God, I was made for glory and I proudly follow my own path” and “I offer See also Louis the Pious; Rabanus Maurus my cheek to whomever loves me and give a kiss to whomever desires me.” She seems to have followed Further Reading her mottos, because she became a legendary poet and lover who has excited the imagination of readers for Walafrid Strabo. Poems. MGH Poetae 2.259–473. centuries. Traill, David A., ed. and trans. Walahfrid Strabo’s Visio Wettini: See also Ibn Zaydu¯n Text, Translation and Commentary. Bern: Lang, 1974. Duckett, Eleanor Shipley. Carolingian Portraits: A Study in the Further Reading Ninth Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, Garulo, T. Diwan de las poetisas de al-Andalus. Madrid, 1986. 1962, pp.121–60. Sobh, M. Poetisas arábigo-andaluzas. Granada, n.d. Godman, Peter. Poets and Emperors: Frankish Politics and Carolingian Poetry. Oxford: Clarendon, 1987. Cristina González Onnerfors, Alf, Johannes Rathofer, and Fritz Wagner, eds. “Über Walahfrid Strabos Psalter-Kommentar.” In Literatur und WALTER OF CHÂTILLON (fl. 1160–1190) Sprache im europaischen Mittelalter: Festschrift für Karl Langosch zum 70. Geburtstag. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche One of most celebrated poets of the twelfth century, Buchgesellschaft, 1973, pp. 75–121. whose Alexandreis reveals the author’s interest in the East and in world geography. E. Ann Matter Despite Walter of Châtillon’s reputation as an ex- WALLAˉ DAH BINT AL-MUSTAFKI traordinary poet in Latin, we know little about his life. He was born near Lille, then in the county of Flanders. Walla¯dah, who lived in Córdoba in the eleventh century, After studying at schools in France (probably at Paris, was the daughter of Caliph Muh. ammad al-Mustakfi. possibly at Reims or Orléans), he taught at a number of Her house was a meeting place for writers. She had schools in northern France, including one at Châtillon. a tempestuous relationship with the famous poet Ibn After studying at Bologna, he joined the court of Wil- Zaydu¯n, who dedicated many of his poems to her. liam, archbishop of Reims, who eventually made Walter Walla¯dah accused him of sleeping both with her slave a canon, probably of Amiens. In addition to numerous and his own secretary, a man by the name of ‘Ali. In lyrics in Latin on a wide variety of subjects (religious, turn, she had affairs with Muhya, a woman poet, and erotic, and satirical) and a treatise against the Jews, Wal- with the vizir. Her relationship with Ibn Zaydu¯n ended ter wrote his best-known work, the Alexandreis (between badly. Most of her nine extant poems are about him. 1171 and 1181), which he dedicated to Archbishop Some are delicate love poems, such as: “Expect my William. The Alexandreis, a ten-book epic in dactylic visit at dusk, for I find that night is the best time to hide hexameters, takes its form, diction, and style from the secrets. What I feel for you is such that by its side the classical epic tradition. Its primary model is Lucan’s sun would not shine, the moon would not rise and the Bellum civile, its primary historical source, Quintus stars would not begin their nocturnal journey.” Some are Curtius Rufus’s Historia Alexandri Magni. obscene satirical poems: “You are called the hexago- nous, a name that will endure beyond your life: faggot, Although the Alexandreis, which covers the life of buggerer, philanderer, fucker, cuckold, thief.” Alexander the Great, is more restrained than some ver- sions of the story in the Alexander romance tradition, it 659

WALTER OF CHÂTILLON Walter of Chatillon. Alexandreis. Ed. Marvin L. Colker. Padova, Italy: Antenore, 1978. nevertheless reveals Walter’s considerable interest in the East. By contrast to the Alexander romance, the Alexan- ——. Alexandreis. Trans. R. Telfryn Pritchard. Toronto: Pontifical dreis follows Curtius’s more “realistic” depiction of the Institute of Medieval Studies, 1986. East. Alexander does not confront any of the monstrous races or exotic peoples described in the romance. For ——. Alexandreis. Trans. David Townsend. Philadelphia: U of example, rather than encountering the Brahmans, the Pennsylvania P, 1997. legendary inhabitants of India famed for their ascetic life and philosophy, Walter’s Alexander meets the Scythians. Maura K. Lafferty His Scythians, however, presented as idealized primi- tives living in accordance with Nature’s dictates, have WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE much in common with the Brahmans of the romance. (ca. 1170–ca. 1230) Walter’s Alexander seems to be a paradigm for cru- In service largely at the Hohenstaufen courts, Walther is saders—in particular for crusading kings such as Philip considered the greatest of the German courtly singers of Augustus (r. 1180–1223). Critics have argued that he the High Middle Ages. Some would argue for his poetic serves, on the one hand, as a positive model of prowess primacy among European singers in any language. Inter- to be imitated and as a negative warning against pursu- nal evidence in his songs suggests he was active between ing the wrong things in the Holy Land: wealth and fame the early 1190s and the late 1220s. His Minnesang (love rather than the salvation of his soul. singing), in which he sang the painful joy of unrequited love for a woman of high station (hôhe minne), shows A catalogue of the lands of Asia in Book 1 and a influences of fashionable German courtly singers such as description of a map carved on the inside of the dome Heinrich von Morungen and Reinmar der Alte. Walther of the tomb of the Persian emperor Darius in Book 7 also sang of the so-called nidere minne (down-to-earth define the natural limitations of the world. This map is a love), an amorous relationship both physical and mutual typical medieval mappamundi of the tripartite type: the that has close parallels in Latin secular love songs. His orbis terrarum has a circular form and is oriented to the political, personal, didactic, and religious songs (Sang- East, with Asia filling the top half of the circle, Europe spruch) reflect the vicissitudes of his career as well as and Africa the two quarters on the bottom. The world the turbulent political events of the sacrum imperium, is ringed by a surrounding Ocean. Like contemporary known later as the Holy Roman Empire. mappamundi, Walter’s includes places and peoples of significance from all periods in biblical, ancient, and me- Extant today are over six hundred stanzas in some dieval history. Walter presents as unnatural Alexander’s three dozen manuscripts. Walther’s music has been ambition to cross the Ocean, to see the regions of the entirely lost save for five melodies, two of them extreme East, and to conquer the peoples of the Antipo- fragmentary and another two from manuscripts writ- des. When Alexander begins to fulfill this ambition by ten three centuries later. Accordingly, readers must invading the Ocean, the goddess Nature intervenes and use their imaginations to re-create the conditions of arranges his death. Although Walter’s Alexandreis was performance and the effect of the melodies and their widely known during the Middle Ages—it survives in accompaniments. some 200 manuscripts and was familiar to such promi- nent vernacular poets as Dante and Chaucer (whose Walther’s name appears only once in nonliterary Wife of Bath alludes casually to Darius’s tomb in her documents of his lifetime, a 1203 entry in the travel “Prologue” [ll. 497–499])—the poem has been largely accounts of Bishop of Passau directing that five shil- (and undeservedly) forgotten. lings be given the singer (cantor) for a fur coat. But other thirteenth-century singers and romanciers provide See also Chaucer, Geoffrey; Dante Alighieri; ample encomia, or formal praise, for this towering figure Godfrey of Viterbo; Philip II Augustus of German lyric singing. Gottfried of Straßburg in his Tristan (ll. 4751–4820) calls him the nightingale car- Further Reading rying the banner of Minnesang, praising Walther’s high (tenor?) voice and his dexterity in the polyphonic style Kratz, Dennis. Mocking Epic: Waltharius, Alexandreis, and the of the day (organum). His artistry is also celebrated by, Problem of Christian Heroism. Madrid: José Porrúa Turan- among others, Reinmar von Zweter, Bruder Werner, zas, 1980. and Rudolf von Ems. In the waning Middle Ages he is enthroned by the Meistersinger as one of the Twelve Lafferty, Maura K. “Mapping Human Limitations: The Tomb Old Masters. Only one contemporary provides negative Ecphrases in Walter of Châtillon’s Alexandreis.” Journal of criticism: Thomasin von Zerklaere castigates him as a Medieval Latin 4 (1994): 64–81. slanderer of Pope Innocent III and a deceiver of men (Der welsche Gast, 11. 11091–11268). Ratkowitsch, Christine. Descriptio Picturae: Die literarische Funktion der Beschreibung von Kunstwerken in der latein- The songs classified as Minnesang—the sequence ischen Grossdichtung des 12. Jahrhunderts. Vienna: Verlag can only be surmised—are normally categorized in the der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1991. 660

following major groups: early songs of elevated love WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE (hôhe minne) linked to Reinmar at the Viennese court; later Minnesang; songs of down-to-earth love (nidere (tiutschiu) woman and, by extension, German culture minne); and late songs. Augmenting the difficulties of is unique in medieval song. dating these songs is the strong possibility of revision in the course of the singer’s career or changes developing During these years Walther also composed songs from the orality of the pieces. with bucolic settings about the real and physical love of a young woman who seems tangential to courtly circles Walther’s assumed apprenticeship at the Viennese (songs of nidere Minne, sometimes called Mädchenli- court, in the 1190s under the tutelage of Reinmar der eder). In “Herzeliebez frouwelîn” (L. 49, 25ff) he is Alte (Reinmar von Hagenau), produced a number of charmed by a woman or girl whose glass ring he values early songs. Some of these have been linked to a “Rein- more than the gold ring of a queen. “Nement, frowe, mar feud” (Reinmar-Fehde), a quasi debate revealing the disen cranz” (L. 74, 20ff) projects a dream vision of outlines of a serious polemic with his former mentor on his beloved, a pretty girl (wol getânen maget) portrayed the nature of minne. Reinmar is the representative of the in the scenery of the Carmina Burana, that is, under a traditional (since the 1160s) ideas inherent in the trouba- blossoming tree on a meadow graced by flowers and the dour lyric: his love, unrequited and unconsummated, is singing of the birds. for an unapproachable lady of a higher station. Walther, on the other hand, hints at a more mutual love; his lady “Under der linden” (Beneath the Linden Tree, no. L. is valued not for her cold, Turandot-like majesty but for 39,11ff) is Walther’s most celebrated love song. In the a more immediate and shared joy. The Reinmar debate tradition of the Latin pastourelle, it contains the same began in the 1190s and seemed to continue until after predictable imagery as in “Nement, frowe, disen cranz.” Walther’s departure from Vienna in 1198. Emblematic of But Walther brings to this tradition a deceptively simple this exchange is Walther’s Ein man verbiutet âne pfliht language expressing the essence of the lovers’ joy, deftly (no. L. 111,22ff), a response to Reinmar’s Ich wirbe umb combined with a playful and delicate web of motifs to allez daz ein man (Minnesangs Frühling, no. 159,1ff), form a song with complex levels of meaning. in which, using the same melody and stanzaic form, he weaves Reinmar’s key motifs into his song to produce Walther’s position at court required him also to excel an ironically critical response to his mentor. at the art of Sangspruch. The term pertains to songs in which love is not the primary matter: political pieces, It is difficult to separate what seem to be the more songs of personal invective, requests for favors from mature songs of the Reinmar debate from Walther’s non- a patron, crusade songs, and songs with a didactic or Reinmar–related songs of the period circa 1205–1215, religious content. Each piece is normally restricted a time in which he achieved mastery of language. Here to one stanza, though in some cases several stanzas the singer composed his most effective and inventive composed in the same tune (Ton, plural Töne) can be songs, sharply breaking with the traditional German bound together to form a performance piece. Walther’s Minnesang (as performed by Heinrich von Morungen, Sangspruch provides a glimpse of the events of his Reinmar, and others), with its prickling tensions and life as well as the fortunes of the empire under the the incessant conjectures about an impossible love. Hohenstaufen rulers and its ongoing struggle with the Walther’s style now becomes pointed, ironic, playful, papacy. These songs were composed largely for patrons and original. Though still dancing around the theme of at the electoral courts—kings, dukes, counts, and bish- hôhe minne, many of his songs now suggest an equal ops—who expected from the singer both workmanlike relationship with a young woman whose station is not compositions and persuasive performances. Occasional of importance and whose designation increasingly be- songs in the best sense, they were composed about spe- comes the generically female wîp (woman) rather than cific events or personalities. In editions of Walther they the socially hierarchical frouwe (lady). In Si wunderwol are usually grouped into cycles of stanzas of identical gemachet wîp, (L. 53,25ff), he sings of the physical at- metrical and musical form (Ton). Some, though not all, tributes of a woman not of the nobility, completing his of the stanzas of a Ton have the same general thematic catalog of adulation with an unprecedented image of the content. Modern scholarship has given them associative woman, unclothed, stepping cleanly from her bath. names that apply to some though not all of the stanzas in the Ton. In the “Konig-Friedrichston” (King Friedrich Among the songs of this period are some that appear Tune, no. 26,3ff), for example, King Friedrich (later the outside the scope of the Minne theme. The so-called emperor Friedrich II) plays a major role only in a few of Preislied (panegyric) Ir sult sprechen willekomen (L. the stanzas. Each of these Töne contains between three 56, 14ff) is possibly a response to the troubadour Peire and eighteen stanzas. Vidal (fl. ca. 1187–1205), whose unkind character- izations of German deportment probably rankled at Walther’s best-known Ton, the “Reichston” (Imperial German-speaking courts. Walther’s praise of German Tune, L. 8,4ff), may well be the earliest. A triad of long stanzas (twenty-four lines each), it begins pensively with the trademark image of Walther sitting on a stone in the pose of the philosopher (Ich saz ûf eime steine, I sat upon 661

WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE modicum of independence as overseer of a fief. In 1220 he composed a song of request to King Friedrich for a stone). In the second song (L. 8,28), Walther moves his own house, playing on his lord’s sympathy for a out of the meditative mode and into the political, calling homeless singer whose wearisome life was a procession for the crowning of the true emperor, the Hohenstaufen of one-night stands. (“König-Friedrichston,” L. 28,1). candidate Philipp of Swabia rather than the papally Apparently Walther was successful, for in the same Ton sanctioned Otto of Brunswick, dynastic leader of the (L. 28,31) he proclaims triumphantly his thanks to the Welf party. With pointed imagery he declares the clergy king, grateful that he need no longer go begging at the of Rome corrupt and the times out of joint. In the third courts of base lords for shelter. song (L. 9,16), assuming the persona of a pious hermit, he indicts the pope as being too young (Innocent III was Since these songs of praise and political propaganda only thirty-nine), an anomaly symptomatic of the ills were produced on demand to suit the shifting political besetting the curia at Rome and its imperial policy. alliances of a turbulent period of imperial history, one might properly ask to what extent Walther’s songs reflect In 1198 Walther left Vienna and attached himself his own values. Many are outright propaganda, although to various Hohenstaufen courts in the middle German of a kind wrought with the highest poetic skills and a regions, continuing both positive and negative associa- deft sense of language. And yet many pieces reveal a tions with Philipp of Swabia (in the five stanzas of the personality sharply troubled by the woeful state of the first “Philippston,” Philipp Tune, L. 18,29ff). Despite mutable world and impelled by a desire to return to the Walther’s ardent propaganda for the imperial candidate, established, predictable, and more ethical patterns of he complains of Philipp’s parsimony. This theme of a time past. The “Wiener Hofton” bewails the uncouth patron’s miserly qualities would become a favorite of behavior of courtly youth (L. 24,3), marking its disparity the later generation of Sangspruch singers in the thir- with the days when one did not spare the rod with ill- teenth century. mannered children. More personal and sadder echoes of this nostalgia permeate the “Elegie” (Elegy, L. 124,1 ff), The “Wiener Hofton” (Viennese Court Tune, L. generally held to have been composed in Walther’s old 20,l6ff), largely composed after Walther’s departure age. It too complains of the uncourtly behavior of young from Vienna in 1198, reveals an ambivalence about the people, but combines it with what must have been an Viennese court, combining a longing to return to this old man’s deeply personal sense of an irretrievable past. desirable venue with an uneasiness about his relations And yet, in the last stanza, it is clear that it is a song of with the reigning Duke Leopold VI. Walther continues outright propaganda, urging knights to undertake a cru- to sing in the causes of Philipp until the would-be sade, possibly that of Frederick II in 1227. Walther was emperor’s death in 1208, but gradually in the course of still the paid entertainer whose patron called the tune. the first decade of the thirteenth century, he forms new courtly associations, most prominently with Hermann, The manuscripts also contain a scattering of personal Landgrave of Thuringia, and his son-in-law, Dietrich, and religious songs of one or more stanzas that cannot Margrave of Meißen. These princes are forced to change properly be called Sangspruch. One is the “Palästina- allegiance after Philipp’s death, leaving the imperial Lied” (Palestine Song, L. 14,38ff), also a recruiting candidacy open to his archrival, Otto of Brunswick. song for a crusade, containing the only complete and Walther reflects the new loyalties in the “Ottenton” (Otto proven melody among Walther’s songs. Another is the Tune, L. 11,6ff), in which he welcomes the new kaiser Leich (L. 3,1ff). This most virtuosic of all medieval to the Reichstag (imperial diet) in Frankfurt, declaring lyric forms—derived from the liturgical sequence—is that his patron, the Margrave of Meißen, is as loyal to a large-format song built on a series of versicles and the emperor as an angel is to God. Less than a year later responses that undergo repetition and variation. It may the margrave and other princes (like the fallen angels) have been specifically composed for groups of singers are in open rebellion, preparing the way for a new-Ho- and instrumentalists, who would have sung and played henstaufen pretender, the young Friedrich II, grandson it antiphonally in unison or possibly with rudimentary of Barbarossa. polyphony (organum). With its many repetitions and variations, it often approached the complexity of a As was the lot of singers employed by the courts, fugue. This is Walther’s longest single performance Walther continued the propaganda commissioned by piece, a prayer to the Mother of God (hence called his various patrons. In one of his sharpest and most a Marienleich), marked by lush praise of the Virgin amusing pieces, “Unmutston” (Disgruntled Tune, L. commingled with references to the Trinity, biblical 34,4), Walther rants against that most ardent enemy of prefigurations, and elements of Christian theology. Yet the Hohenstaufen interests, Pope Innocent III, for his even in this, Walther’s most pious work, the singer can- collecting of German monies to finance the Albigensian not refrain from references to the Roman curia and its Crusade in 1213, accusing the Roman clergy of feasting “unchristian things” (unchristliche dinge). on capons and wine while the German laity grows lean from fasting. There is evidence that Walther was able to gain a 662

The legacy of Walther’s Sangspruch was a set of WENCESLAS models and patterns for a century of professional sing- ers who followed. His love songs, on the other hand, as Staathalter in February of the following year. After marked in a sense the end of Minnesang. The art had Charles’s death, he inherited the Bohemian crown. soared in the songs of Morungen and Reinmar. Walther Wenceslas has not enjoyed the good reputation of his moved through the exhausted concept of hôhe minne and father. In particular, he has been generally condemned brought the love song back to earth. But after him no for his sloth, vacillation, and drunkenness. other Minnesinger approached his or his predecessors’ mastery of the art. Wenceslas was faced immediately with several seri- ous problems. First was the Swabian City League, es- See also Frederick II; Heinrich von Morungen; tablished July 4, 1376. The growth of the league, aimed Reinmar der Alte directly against the mortgage policies of his rather, led to a major war, lasting until 1389. The second problem Further Reading was the Great Schism, which broke out in the fall of 1378. Wenceslas supported the pope in Rome, Urban Bäuml, Franz, ed. From Symbol to Mimesis: The Generation of VI. In 1380 he traveled to Paris in an attempt to con- Walther von der Vogelweide. Göppingen: Kümmerle, 1984. vince French King Charles V to withdraw support from the Avignon pope, Clement II. When this effort failed, Bein, Thomas. Walther von der Vogelweide. Stuttgart: Reclam, on the advice of Urban VI, Wenceslas allied himself 1997. with Richard II of England. The alliance and resulting marriage between the English king and Wenceslas’s Brunner, Horst, et al. Walther von der Vogelweide: Die gesamte sister Anna marked a total break with the traditional Überlieferung der Texte und Melodien—Abbildungen, Materi- pro-French Luxembourg policy. Within the empire, a alien, Melodiestranskription. Göppingen: Kümmerle, 1977. group of southern principalities, led by Leopold III of Austria and Archbishop Pilgrim II of Salzburg, sup- ——, et al. Walther von der Vogelweide: Epoche—Werk— ported Clement VII. Wirkung. Munich: Beck, 1996. During the first years of his reign, Wenceslas sought Cormeau, Christoph, ed. Walther von der Vogelweide: Leich, to resolve the problems of the cities. The Landfriede Lieder, Sangsprüche. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1996. (peace) of Nuremberg (1383) marks the first attempt to divide the empire into districts or counties (Kreise), Goldin, Friedrich. “Walther versus Reinmar,” in The Regeneration anticipating the later reforms of Albrecht II and Maxi- of Poetic Language in Medieval German Literature: Vernacu- milian I. After the league’s defeat at Döffingen (1388), lar Poetics in the Middle Ages, ed. Lois Ebin. Kalamazoo: the Landfriede of Eger (1389) provided a modicum Western Michigan University, 1984, pp. 57–92. of stability for the next several decades. The political autonomy of the cities was recognized, while they were Hahn, Gerhard. Walther von der Vogelweide: Eine Einführung. banned from making further leagues. Munich: Artemis, 1986. After 1390, problems in Bohemia consumed most of Halbach, Kurt Herbert. Walther von der Vogelweide, 4th ed. Wenceslas’s energy. He tended to support the towns and Stuttgart: Metzler, 1983. lower nobility; this provoked resistance from the great nobles and higher clergy. The archbishop of Prague, Jones, George Fenwick. Walther von der Vogelweide. New York: Jan z Jenštejna (1379–1396) in particular proved a Twayne, 1968. serious opponent of the crown. The torture and murder of the vicar general of Prague, John of Pomuk (March McFarland, Timothy, and Silvia Ranawake, eds. Walther von 20, 1393) by royal officials provoked a noble Fronde der Vogelweide: Twelve Studies. Oxford: Oxford University in 1394. Wenceslas’s cousin, Margrave Jost of Mora- Press, 1982. via, joined with the nobles and took the king prisoner (May 8, 1394) with the collusion of Duke Albrecht III Mück, Hans-Dieter. Walther von der Vogelweide: Beiträge zu of Austria. Jost was named regent, but the interven- Leben und Werk. Stuttgart: Stöffler and Schütz, 1989. tion of Wenceslas’s half-brother John of Görlitz and Ruprecht II of the Palatinate led to the king’s release. Müller, Jan-Dirk, and Franz Josef Worstbrock, eds. Walther von As Wenceslas now turned on his opponents, a civil der Vogelweide: Hamburger Kolloquium 1988 zum 65. Ge- war broke out. The deaths of Albrecht III (August 29, burtstag von Karl-Heinz Borck. Stuttgart: Hirzel, 1989. 1395) and John of Görlitz (March 1, 1396) brought an end to the fighting. Wenceslas’s other half-brother, king Nix, Matthias. Untersuchungen zur Funktion der politischen Sigismund of Hungary, was able to negotiate a peace Spruchdichtung Walthers von der Vogelweide. Göppingen: settlement among Jost, Wenceslas, and the nobles. In Kümmerle, 1993. return, Sigismund was recognized as Wenceslas’s heir and named imperial vicar. Scheibe, Fred Karl. Walther von der Vogelweide, Troubadour of the Middle Ages: His Life and His Reputation in the English- Speaking Countries. New York: Vantage, 1969. Peter Frenzel WENCESLAS (November 26, 1361–Angust 6, 1419) Wenceslas IV (Václav, Wenzel, king of the Romans 1378–1400, king of Bohemia until 1419) was the eldest son of Charles IV by his third wife, Anna of Schwei- dnitz. Wenceslas was born on November 26, 1361, in Nuremberg. He was elected king of the Romans on June 10, 1376, and assumed control of imperial affairs 663

WENCESLAS The principal architects of the Czech victory were Jerome of Prague, Jan Hus, and Jakoubeck of Stríbro. In After the battle of Nikopolis (September 28, 1396), the wake of the Kutná Hora decrees, Archbishop Zdynek Sigismund turned to securing his Hungarian lands. This of Prague (1399–1411) excommunicated a number of left Wenceslas, after a ten-year absence from Germany, royal officials and placed Prague under the interdict. faced with an angry crowd of princes at the imperial Wenceslas ordered the city’s clergy to ignore the decree. diets of Nuremberg (1397) and Frankfurt (1398). The Zydnek agreed to submit to the king, but then fled the four Rhenish electors issued a series of demands. The kingdom, seeking the aid of Emperor Sigismund. The Landfriede and Schism were perennial sticking points. archbishop died in Bratislava in September 1411, and Wenceslas’s elevation of Giangalleazzo Visconti to the after his departure, the Hussite movement became more duchy of Milan (April 11, 1395) also provoked the elec- radical. A group of reformers began calling for the tors’ ire. In June 1400 the Rhenish electors demanded administration of the cup to the laity (utraquism). In that Wenceslas appear before them to answer to their 1412 Hus and Jakoubek publicly declared the Roman complaints. Their request coincided with a renewal pontiff to be antichrist, leading to their excommunica- of hostilities among Wenceslas, Jost, and the nobles. tion. Along with the new archbishop, Conrad of Vechta, Wenceslas’s Bohemian problems did not, in the eyes Wenceslas made a furtive attempt to restore Catholicism. of the electors, excuse his refusal to appear. On August Hus turned to the nobility for support, and at a synod 20, 1400, the four Rhenish electors declared Wenceslas in February 1413, Wenceslas again changed his mind, deposed and elected the count palatine, Ruprecht III, ordering the archbishop’s commission to declare that king of the Romans. there was no heresy in Bohemia. Wenceslas refused to recognize his deposition, but In 1414 Emperor Sigismund requested that Hus he was too occupied with Bohemian affairs to do much appear before the Council of Constance to explain his about it. The death of Ruprecht of the Palatine in 1401 program. Under a guarantee of safe-conduct, Hus went presented Wenceslas with an opportunity to regain the to Constance but soon found himself imprisoned. Over German throne. Unfortunately he could not count on 250 Czech nobles protested this action, but to no avail. support from his family. Indeed, both Sigismund and On July 6, 1415, Hus was burnt as a heretic in Constance. Jost were able to secure election to the imperial throne. Reprisals against other Hussites had already begun. Jost’s death—perhaps from poison—in January 1411 The German burghers of Olomouc had burned two lay cleared the way for an agreement between Sigismund preachers a week earlier; Jerome of Prague was burnt and Wenceslas. The latter agreed to relinquish his Ger- in May of the following year. Hus’s death led fifty-eight man crown in return for half the imperial revenues and Hussite nobles to form a Hussite league in September recognition of his position in Bohemia. 1415. A Catholic alliance followed a month later. In 1416 Wenceslas again tried to restore Catholicism The last years of Wenceslas’s reign in Bohemia saw in Prague, but resistance from the university faculty the beginnings of a religious and political crisis that and nobility forced a compromise on the question of would later erupt in the Hussite revolution. Since the utraquism. time of Charles IV, a series of radical preachers, among them Conrad Waldhause, Jan Milíc, and Matthew of The election of Pope Martin V in 1417 increased Janov, had been attacking the higher clergy. The mar- pressure on Wenceslas to take a hard line against the riage between Anne of Bohemia and Richard II of heretics. In the spring of 1419, Wenceslas arrested England led to the growth of a Wycliffite faction among priests in Prague who granted the cup to the laity, and Czech scholars at the University of Prague. Jerome appointed Czech and German Catholics as Bürgermeis- of Prague, along with his student Jan Hus, appeared ter (mayors) in the Nové Mesto. On July 30, 1419, the as leaders of the Wycliffite Czechs. The ideological radical preacher Jan Zelivsky led a procession through struggles were connected with political struggles in the the city to the New Town Hall demanding the release of university between the Czech minority and the three imprisoned Utraquist priests. A scuffle broke out, and German-dominated “nations.” thirteen of the council members were thrown out the window. The first defenestration of Prague led to the After the Roman pope Boniface IX (1389–1404) outbreak of a great revolt. Not long after, on August 6, supported the Rhenish electors in 1400, Wenceslas 1419, Wenceslas died. While most works ascribe his turned to support the Czech reformers. He agreed to death to a stroke, research by a Czech neurologist sug- recognize the Council of Pisa (1408) and at the council gests that the actual cause of death was acute alcohol of Kutná Hora ordered the German masters of the poisoning. university to do so as well. The Kutná Hora decrees (January 18, 1409) broke the Germans’ control over Wenceslas was married twice, to Johanna of Bavaria the university, giving the Czech nation three votes (d. 1386) and Sophia of Bavaria (d. 1425). He had no to one for all three of the German nations. A number children and all his lands fell to Emperor Sigismund. of German masters left, later forming the core of the University of Leipzig. 664

See also Charles IV; Charles V the Wise; WERNER DER GÄRTNER Richard II unsuited. His mother and sister provide him with expen- Further Reading sive clothing (a contravention of the sumptuary laws); father Helmbrecht provides him with a costly steed, but Baethgen, Friedrich. Schisma und Konzilzeit, Reichsreform und only after trying to dissuade his son from leaving the Habsburg Aufstieg. Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, farm (vv. 233–258; 279–298; 329–360). Helmbrecht 1973. easily finds acceptance with a band of robber knights and soon becomes the worst in his gang. After a year of Gerlich, Alois. Habsburg-Luxembourg-Wittelsbach im Kampf um plundering, he returns home and tells his father about die deutschen Königsthrone: Studien zur Vorgeschichte König- the depravity and immorality of the knights. The elder tums Ruprechts von der Pfalz. Wiesbaden: Steiner, I960, Helmbrecht again tries to convince his son to remain on the farm and offers to share all that he has with him Hlaváek, Ivan. Das Urkunden- und Kanzleiwesen des böhmischen (vv. 1098–1114). Helmbrecht scoffs at this offer and und römischen Königs Wenzel (IV.) 1376–1419: Ein Beitrag returns to his band of robber knights, taking with him zur spätmittelalterlichen Diplomatik. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, his sister Gotelint, who secretly has agreed to marry his 1970. friend Lemberslint. The marriage proves ill-fated, for after the wedding breakfast the judge and his hangmen Kaminsky, Howard. A History of the Hussite Revolution. Berke- appear and try them on the spot. Helmbrecht’s nine ley: University of California Press, 1967. companions are summarily hanged. Helmbrecht’s life is spared but only after he has been maimed and blinded as Lindner, Theodor. Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter punishment for his behavior toward his parents. It is in König Wenzel. Braunschweig: C. A. Schwetschkte und Sohn, this pitiful condition that Helmbrecht returns home for 1875/1880. the last time. Unlike before, he does not find a compas- sionate father ready to help him, but rather a disdainful Speváek, JiYí. Václav IV. 1361–1419. K predpokladûm hustiské father who turns him out (vv. 1713–1760; 1775–1813). revoluce. Prague: Svoboda, 1986. Helmbrecht suffers a miserable existence in the forest until he is finally captured by peasants whom he had William Bradford Smith wronged and is hung. WERNER DER GÄRTNER The three conversations between father and son (fl. circa 1250–1280) mark the tale’s progress. The lesson is clear: parents should be strict in educating their children; children The creator of one of the most realistic narratives of the should obey their parents (the Fourth Commandment); Middle Ages, Werner der Gärtner (the gardener) com- one should be content with one’s station in life (ordo posed Helmbrecht, a short epic of 1,934 lines written mundi). Whether or not Werner actually witnessed the in rhyming couplets, between 1250 and 1280, although events he describes, these events accurately reflect the some dispute this dating. Detailing a drastic picture of social unrest occasioned by the end of the Hohenstaufen contemporary life, Werner depicts the decline of chivalry reign in the late thirteenth century. Werner addresses the as well as the moral decay of the peasantry. The work major social issues of his time by depicting the collapse has been variously described as a Dorfgeschichte (vil- of the feudal system, the decline of chivalry, and the new lage tale), Verspredigt (rhymed sermon), and exemplum self-assertiveness of the peasants; his social criticism is (moral tale). Helmbrecht survives in two manuscripts: directed at peasants and knights alike. “A” refers to the famous Ambras Book of Heroes (Hel- denbuch) from 1504 to 1515, a costly parchment manu- Further Reading script in Vienna (Nationalbibliothek) copied by Hans Ried; and “B,” the “Leombach Manuscript” (1413), a Banta, Frank G. “The Arch of Action in Meier Helmbrecht.” Jour- paper manuscript. A third, illustrated manuscript, now nal of English and German Philology 63 (1964): 696–711. lost, was still extant at the start of the nineteenth cen- tury. Manuscript “A,” regarded as the original version, Helmbrecht, ed. and trans. Helmut Brackert, Winfried Frey, and points to the Austrian-Bavarian region as its place of Dieter Seitz. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer-Taschenbuch Verlag, composition. Little is known of Werner, who is generally 1972; rpt. 1990. thought to have been a cleric, a wandering minstrel, or an occasional poet. He was an educated man whose work Jackson, W. T .H. “The Composition of Meier Helmbrecht.” was intended for a sophisticated, noble audience. Modern Language Quarterly 18 (1957): 44–58. This moral-didactic tale centers on the generation Kolb, Herbert. “Der ‘Meier Helmbrecht’ zwischen Epos und Dra- gap between father and son, between older conservative ma.” Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie 81 (1962): 1–23. values and newer progressive aspirations. Werner begins with a description of the elaborate and highly inappropri- Meier Helmbrecht von Wernher der Gartenaere, ed. Friedrich ate cap with which Helmbrecht, the farmer’s son, hopes Panzer. Halle: Niemeyer, 1902; 10th ed., Hans-Joachim to find acceptance among the knights. The younger Ziegeler. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1993. Helmbrecht rejects the farmer’s life and instead aspires to become a knight, a calling for which he is clearly Seelbach, Ulrich. Bibliographie zu Wernher der Gartenaere. Berlin: Schmidt, 1981. 665

WERNER DER GÄRTNER and faithful in the history of salvation. Wiligelmus’s Genesis frieze should thus be seen as an important early ——. Kommentar zum Helmbrecht von Wernher dem Gartenaere. example of the development of large-scale didactic Göppingen: Kümmerle, 1987. Romanesque sculptural programs. Sowinski, Bernbard. Wernher der Gartenaere: Helmbrecht. Wiligelmus’s figures are conceived as bold, massive, Interpretation. Munich: Oldenbourg, 1971. vital forms of great monumentality and plasticity. They convey an impressive sense of weight, as seen in the an- Wernher der Gartenaere: Helmbrecht, trans. Linda Parshall, ed. gels holding God’s mandorla and Abel’s slumping body Ulrich Seelbach. New York: Garland, 1987. in Cain Killing Abel. Figures emerge from the relief plane and fully occupy the space that is allotted to them, Lynn D. Thelen even bursting into the frame of the plaque (e.g., Enoch and Elijah). These forms have large heads, hands, and WILIGELMUS (fl. c. 1099–c. 1120) feet; broad faces with lead–inset eyes; hair articulated by long, wavy parallel strokes; and beards punctuated Wiligelmus (Guglielmo, Wiligelmo) is often considered with drill holes. Solemn, full of gravitas, these bodies the first great Italian sculptor. His reliefs on the facade express the narrative action with clear, bold gestures. of Modena cathedral are among the first important Wiligelmus animates his figures with palpable human sculptural programs of northern Italy, as part of the expressions (especially notable is the anguish on Cain’s early development of Romanesque sculpture. His face as he is killed by Lamech). Most of these sculptures identity as the creator is known from an inscription make prominent use of inscriptions, either identifying held by the figures of the prophets Enoch and Elijah: figures or including more extensive biblical, liturgical, Inter scultores quanto sis dignis onore—Claret scultura or secular texts; the inscription plaque held by Enoch nunc Wiligelme tua ( “How much honor you deserve and Elijah is an example. among sculptors is now shown by your sculpture, Wi- ligelmo”). Wiligelmus’s oeuvre has been identified at Numerous sources and models for Wiligelmus’s style Modena and elsewhere through stylistic comparisons have been suggested, including ivory, metalwork, and with these prophets, carved from the same block as the manuscripts as well as early Romanesque sculpture in inscription. Aquitaine and Bari. The most direct and most appar- ent source of inspiration is Roman sculpture. Local, Wiligelmus’s principal work is the sculptural assem- provincial Roman works clearly provided models for blage on the west facade of the cathedral of Modena, several of the reliefs in Modena. The genii with over- presumably executed c. 1106–1110, including the in- turned torches and the arrangement of the prophets scription plaque; four reliefs from Genesis; two reliefs Enoch and Elijah on the inscription plaque are clearly of genii with overturned torches; numerous capitals derived from Roman sarcophagi. Wiligelmus’s access to and decorative reliefs; and the program of the central these sources can be explained by Relation translationis portal, containing an elaborate scroll motif and twelve carports sancti Geminiani (Account of the Translation reliefs of prophets. The present placement of some of of the Body of Saint Geminianus), which mentions the the reliefs is the result of changes made to the facade miraculous discovery of a quarry of building materials, in the late twelfth century by the Campionese masters, presumably the necropolis or other parts of the Roman who added the lateral portals and relocated the first and city of Mutina (Modena). Wiligelmus adopted not only fourth reliefs from Genesis above them. Some scholars formal arrangements of figures from these Roman hold that these reliefs were created as part of liturgical sources but also the sense of solidity and gravitas that furnishings for the interior of the cathedral (Quintavalle distinguishes his sculptures. Furthermore, the obvious 1964–1965), but the evidence suggests that they were source of inspiration for the arrangement of the frieze originally intended as part of a sculptural program around the central portal is the Roman triumphal arch. decorating the facade. This suggests a certain conscious use of antique forms to connote both the venerable antiquity of Modena and The four reliefs from Genesis flanking the central the triumph of the church. portal serve as a monumental introduction to the cathe- dral and constitute the first large-scale frieze devoted In addition to the program at Modena, Wiligelmus ap- exclusively to biblical subjects. The general themes are pears to have worked at the cathedral in Cremona before the creation, the fall, and the promise of salvation as the earthquake of 1117. The four large prophets from the revealed in the flood. The frieze concludes with the ark jamb of the portal are stylistically analogous to his work as the ship of salvation—an Old Testament prefiguration at Modena. Fragments of a frieze from the cathedral of of salvation and the mission of the church. Labors of the Cremona, clearly modeled after Wiligelmus’s reliefs in Progenitors and Cain and Abel Offering to God, which Modena, appear to have been executed by his workshop. flank the main portal, present a lesson to the faithful Wiligelmus apparendy directed a large workshop that about giving the fruits of one’s labors to God (and the church). Textual similarities between the inscriptions and the liturgical drama Ordo representacionis Ade sug- gest that performance and image were intended to work together to educate audiences about the roles of church 666

trained numerous sculptors who continued his work at WILLEM OF HILDEGAERSBERCH Modena and carried his style elsewhere. The two lateral portals at Modena—Porta della Pescheria (north, by the WILLEM OF HILDEGAERSBERCH Master of the Artù) and Porta dei Principi (south, by the (ca. 1350–1408/1409) Master of San Geminiano)—are products of the school of Wiligelmus. These two portals follow Wiligelmus’s The most important author and performer of sproken basic scheme from the west portal, but with smaller, (short verse narratives) in Middle Dutch literature, less massive, though more lively figures. The Porta dei Willem was born around 1350 in Hillegersberg, near Principi is the earliest example of the northern Italian Rotterdam (county of Holland). He died between June form of a two-story porch-portal supported by lions or 1408 and April 1409. He was not of noble heritage and atlantes bearing columns. That this form developed in seems to have received a rather restricted education. We the context of Wiligelmus’s workshop further indicates can probably take seriously the verses in which he states his seminal role in the development of northern Italian that he is ashamed of his lack of knowledge of Latin. Romanesque sculpture. Willem was an itinerant poet, performing at aristocratic courts, in abbeys, and in towns. He maintained a close Additional sculpture by the workshop of Wiligelmus relationship with the court in The Hague, judging by his can be found at the Benedictine abbey of Nonantola, frequent appearances in the writings about the counts of the cathedral of Piacenza, the Pieve di Quarantoli, Holland. Between 1383 and 1403, Willem is mentioned and the Cluniac abbey of San Benedetto Polirole. no fewer than thirty-two times. The most noteworthy pupil of Wiligelmus is Master Nicholaus. Much of Willem’s oeuvre survives; 120 sproken can be attributed to him. His name is mentioned in forty of Further Reading them. Two manuscripts contain almost all known spro- ken written by him: The Hague, Koninklijke Bibliotheek Crichton, George Henderson. Romanesque Sculpture in Italy. (manuscript no. 128 E 6) and Brussels, Koninklijke Bib- London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1954. liotheek (manuscript no. 15.659–661), preserving 117 and 119 sproken, respectively. Fragments and sproken in Francovich, Geza de. “Wiligelmo da Modena e gli inizii della other miscellanies prove that Willem of Hildegaersberch scultura romanica in Francia e in Spagna.” Rivista dell’Istituto was very esteemed in his days. Nazionale di Archeologia e Storia dett’Arte, 7, 1940, pp. 225–294. The sproke, a short poetic genre, was performed from the fourteenth century onward by itinerant artists in the Frugoni, Chiara. Wiligelmo: Le sculture del duomo di Modena. Middle Dutch area. It has an average length of 180 to Modena: F. C. Panini, 1996. 200 verses, but shorter as well as longer sproken are found. The sproke can be mainly narrative as well as Gandolfo, Francesco. “Note per una interpretazione iconologica demonstrative, mostly with no lyrical tenor. It generally delle storie del Genesi di Wiligelmo.” In Romanico padano, implicitly or explicitly moralizes or serves a didactic romanico europeo, ed. Arturo Carlo Quintavalle. Parma: purpose. Moral truth and Christian or worldly ethics Artegrafica Silva, 1982, pp. 323–337. are often stressed. The genre of the sproke is very close to the exemplum, the parable, and the sermon. Willem Lanfranco e Wiligelmo: Il duomo di Modena (Quando le cattedrali mostly writes rhyming couplets, but he sometimes erano bianche), 3 vols., ed. E, Castelnuovo, V. Fumigalli, A. switches to a strophic form. Peroni, and A. Settis. Modena: Panini, 1984. Willem’s poems treat a large diversity of themes. Porter, Arthur Kingsley. Romanesque Sculpture of the Pilgrim- He speaks about religious subjects, such as Christian age Roads, 10 vols. Boston: Marshall Jones, 1923. (Reissue, virtues or the Easter gospel. On the other hand, he does New York, 1966.) not hesitate to criticize the clergy. An important part of Willem’s oeuvre was meant to be recited at court, and Quintavalle, Arturo Carlo. La cattedrale di Modena: Prob- these texts are consequently directly addressed to the lemi di romanico emiliano, 2 vols. Modena: Editrice Bassi, lords. Here he is concerned with worldly virtues like 1964–1965. honor and justice, especially complaining about their decline. He considers it to be his duty to advise the lords ——. Da Wiligelmo a Nicola. Parma, 1966. in matters of government and to confront them with the ——, ed. Wiligelmo e la sua scuola. Florence: Sadea-Sansoni, truth. His criticism concerns especially the rogues who surround the lords and deceive them. Willem of Hilde- 1967. gaersberch was conscious that he depended to a very ——. Romanico padano, civiltà d’occidente. Florence: Marchi large extent on the favor of the lords. This is why he sometimes felt obliged to soften the truth. In those cases e Bertolli, 1969. he formulated his criticism in an indirect way. Thus, ——. “Piacenza Cathedral, Lanfranco, and the School of Wil- no one had to feel offended, and the person in question igelmo.” Art Bulletin, 55, 1973, pp. 40–57. ——. Wiligelmo e Matilda: L’officina romanica. Milan: Electa, 1991. Salvini, Roberto. Wiligelmo e le origini della scultura romanica.Milan: Aldo Martello, 1956. ——. La scultura romanica in Europa. Milan: Garzanti, 1963. ——. II duomo di Modena e il romanico nel modenese. Modena: Cassa di Risparmio di Modena, 1966. Wiligelmo e Lanfranco nell’Europa romanica. Atti del Convegno, Modena, 24–27 ottobre 1985. Modena: Panini, 1989. Scott B. Montgomery 667

WILLEM OF HILDEGAERSBERCH later assisted in the post-conciliar editing of the canons of the council, and some twenty years afterward he pub- always had the possibility to say the criticism did not lished the final version of In sacrosanctum Lugdunese apply to him or her. The way to make his criticism in- concilium commentarius (c. 1293–1294), his long com- direct is fiction. Willem uses dissociating elements: he mentary on the council’s decrees. wraps his criticism in exempla, allegories, or (animal) fables, for example. By 1279, William was ordained a priest and was made dean of the cathedral of Chartres by Pope Nicholas III Further Reading (r. 1277–1280). In 1280, Nicholas appointed him rector et capitaneus generalis of a portion of the papal states Bisschop, Willem, and Eelco Verwijs, eds. Gedichten van Willem (including a part of Tuscany and the diocese of Rieti). van Hildegaersberch. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1870. In 1281, the new pope, Martin IV (r. 1281–1285), added to William’s official duties rule of the turbulent Hogenelst, Dini. Sproken en sprekers. Inleiding op en reperto- Romagna. From 1282 to 1286, William coordinated the rium van de Middelnederlandse sproke. 2 vols. Amsterdam: war efforts of the papacy in the Romagna, leading the Prometheus, 1997. pro-papal Guelfs to a precarious interim victory over the Ghibellines. Meder, Theo. Sprookspreker in Holland. Leven en werk van Willem van Hildegaersberch (circa 1400). Amsterdam: Pro- In 1285, William submitted his resignation from metheus, 1991 [German summary]. the papal service to Pope Honorius IV (r. 1285–1287). Within a month, William was elected bishop of Mende van Oostrom, Frits P. Court and Culture: Dutch Literature, in his native Provence by the cathedral chapter. He was 1350–1450. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. consecrated bishop by the archbishop of Ravenna in 1286 but (inexplicably) remained in Rome for another An Faems five years before taking up residence in Mende in July 1291. WILLIAM DURANDUS (c. 1230 or 1231–1 November 1296) William’s prolific literary production during his epis- copacy demonstrates his conscientious application of his William Durandus (Guillelmus Duranti, Guillaume learning to pastoral care (not to mention his capability as Durand) is called the Elder to distinguish him from a an encyclopedic polymath). The works he published in nephew with the same name. The elder “William Duran- this period include the following: Constitutiones syno- dus was born in Puimisson, near Béziers in Provence. dales (c. 1292), a collection of statutes and instructions We know practically nothing about his family or early for the reform of the clergy of his diocese; Ordinarium life before his ordination as subdeacon in the cathedral (c. 1291–1293), a book regulating the liturgical services of Narbonne c. 1254 and his enrollment in the list of of the cathedral of Mende; his commentary on the Sec- canons at the cathedral of Maguelonne at about the ond Council of Lyon; Rationale divinorum ojficiorum (c. same time. Not long after taking clerical orders, Wil- 1291–1296), a long allegorical commentary on the entire liam began formal legal studies at the University of liturgy (including the mass, divine office, and church Bologna; he earned a doctorate in canon law there c. year); and Pontificale (Bishop’s Book, c. 1293–1295), 1263. He may have lectured at the university before he which provided rubrics and prayers for liturgical ser- became a papal chaplain and “general auditor” under vices performed only by a bishop. Modern scholarship Pope Urban IV (r. 1261–1264). Early in his long and has revealed that William’s Rationale and Pontificale increasingly difficult career in the service of the papal were two of the most important liturgical texts of the curia, William befriended the best-known canonist in entire medieval period in Europe. Europe, Cardinal Henricus de Segusia (Henry of Susa), known as Hostiensis. William had been a resident bishop for only four years when he succumbed to the persistent entreaties Under Pope Clement IV (1265–1268), William con- of his friend Benedict Gaetani, now Pope Boniface VIII tinued his service as papal chaplain and auditor. He also (r. 1294–1303), to return to Rome and assume official finished the first edition of his first publication, Aureum duties in the papal states. In September 1295, William repertorium (c. 1264–1270), a short index and com- was appointed rector of the Anconian March and the mentary on Gratian’s Decretum (c. 1140) and on Pope Romagna, territories that were in a state of near-anar- Gregory IX’s Liber extra (1234). Aureum repertorium chy since the Ghibelline faction had mobilized itself was soon followed by William’s massive and—during for war with the Guelfs. William’s command of the the medieval period—definitive textbook on procedural papacy’s war effort failed, however, when he lost the law, Speculum Iudiciale (c. 1271–1276). The endur- city of Imola to the Ghibellines and presided over the ing fame of this work earned William the nickname defeat of a pro-papal Bolognese army in April 1296. By Speculator, by which he was commonly known during the end of the summer of 1296, William, who was by and after his lifetime. In the summer of 1274, William attended the Second Council of Lyon and held the official title of peritus (theologian) for Pope Gregory X (1271–1276). William 668

then in his sixties, seems to have had little if any official WILLIAM I responsibility in the papal states. He continued to reside in Rome, where he died. of Lyons.” Bulletin of Medieval Canon Law, n.s., 4, 1974, pp. 39–47. William Durandus the Elder was buried in the church Douteil, Herbert. Studien zu Durantis “Rationale divinorum of- of Santa Maria Sopra Minerva. A thirty-line epitaph ficiorum” als kirchenmusicalischer Quelle. Kölner Beiträge praising his life and works was inscribed there in zur Musikforschung, 52. Regensburg, 1969. marble, possibly at the request of his nephew William Dykmans, Marc. “Notes autobiographiques de Guillaume Durand Durandus the Younger, who succeeded him as bishop le Spéculateur.” In Ius populi Dei: Miscellanea in honorem of Mende. Raymundi Bidagor. Rome, 1972, pp. 121–142. Faletti, Louis. “Guillaume Durand.” Dictionnaire de droit cano- There are numerous incunabula and early printed nique, 5, 1953, pp. 1014–1075. editions of Aureum repertorium super toto corpore Gy, Pierre-Marie, ed. Guillaume Durand, évêque de Mende (v. iuris canonici, but as of the present writing there was 1230–1296): Canoniste, liturgiste, et homme politique—Actes no modern edition. Speculum iudiciale survives in de la Table Ronde du CNRS Mende 24–27 mai 1990. Paris: more than 100 medieval manuscripts; there are numer- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1992. (Collec- ous incunabula and early printed editions but (again tion of papers; at the time of its publication it represented the as of this writing) no modern edition. A manuscript most up-to-date research on Durandus.) (possibly written or corrected by Durandus himself) of Leclerq, Victor. “Guillaume Duranti, évêque de Mende, surn- Constitutiones synodales was published in a diplomatic ommé le Spéculateur.” In Histoire Littéraire de la France, Vol. edition (Berthelé and Valmary 1905). The only known 20. Paris: Librairies Universitaires, 1895, pp. 411–480. printed edition of In sacrosanctum Lugdunese concilium Ménard, Clarence C. “William Durand’s Rationale divinorum commentarius is that of 1569. The Pontificale was pub- officiorum: Preliminaries to a New Critical Edition.” Disserta- lished in the magisterial edition of Andrieu (1940). The tion, Gregorian University (Rome), 1967. (Groundbreaking Rationale divinorum offciorum survives in hundreds of work that was the basis for a recently published edition of medieval Latin manuscripts, as well as numerous me- the Rationale.) dieval vernacular translations; the first modern critical Thibodeau, Timothy M. “Enigmata figurarum: Biblical Exegesis edition is Davril and Thibodeau (1995, 1998). Although and Liturgical Exposition in Durand’s Rationale ”. Harvard a complete modern biography of Durandus has yet to Theological Review, 86, 1993, pp. 65–79. be written, the bibliography of secondary sources is voluminous; selected references are listed below. Timothy M. Thibodeau Further Reading WILLIAM I (1027/28–1087; r. 1066–87) Primary Sources First Norman king of England; known as “the Con- queror.” Born in 1027 or 1028 at Falaise in Normandy, Andrieu, Michel, ed. Le pontifical romain au Moyen-Âge, Vol. 3, William was the only, but illegitimate, son of Duke Rob- Le pontifical de Guillaume Durand. Studi e Testi, 88. Vatican ert of Normandy. His mother, Herleva, was the daughter City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1940. of a tanner or, more probably, an undertaker of Falaise. Subsequently Robert married her off to a minor noble Aureum repertorium super toto corpore iuris canonici. Venice: from the Seine Valley, Herluin de Conteville, by whom Paganinus de Paganinis, 1496–1497. she had two further sons, Odo, later bishop of Bayeux (from 1050), and Robert, subsequently (from ca. 1060) Berthelé, J., and M. Valmary, eds. “Les instructions et constitu- count of Mortain. tions de Guillaume Durand le Spéculateur,” Académie des Sciences et Lettres de Montpellier: Mémoires de la Section William became duke of Normandy at the age of des Lettres, Series 2(3), 1905, pp. 1–148. seven, when his father died in July 1035 while returning from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. That he became duke at Davril, Anselme, and T. M. Thibodeau, eds. Guillelmi Duranti all, given his age and illegitimacy, was probably due to Rationale divinorum officiorum I–IV, V–VI. Corpus Christia- the lack of other candidates. Though Robert had taken norum, Continuatio Medieaevalis, 140 and 140A. Turnhout: the precaution to have him formally designated duke Brepols, 1995; 1998. before departing for the Holy Land, William’s rule in Normandy was to face serious challenges for more than In sacrosanctum Lugdunese concilium commentarius sub Gre- twenty years. Law and order collapsed in the duchy gorio X Guilelmi Duranti cognomento Speculatoris commen- during his minority, ducal power and property were tarius, ed. Simone Maiolo. Fano: Iacobus Moscardus, 1569. usurped by contending nobles, and several members of his court, including some cousins, were murdered in Speculum iudiciale, illustratum, et repurgatum a Giovanni An- factional disputes. This disorder culminated in a serious drea et Baldo degli Ubaldi. Basel: Froben, 1574. (4 parts in 2 rebellion in western Normandy in 1047, led by Count vols.; the best-known and most widely available text. Reprint, Guy of Brienne, suppressed only with the help of the Darmstadt: Aalen, 1975.) French king Henry I, who assisted William in defeating the rebels at the Battle of Val-es-Dunes near Caen. Secondary Sources In the years immediately after this success the do- Baimelle, Marius. Bibliographie du Gévaudan, n.s., fasc. 3. mestic situation in Normandy was stable enough for Mende: n.p., 1966. (Pamphlet. Good though dated bibliogra- phy for the life and works of Durandus and his nephew.) Boyle, Leonard. “The Date of the Commentary of William Du- ranti the Elder on the Constitutions of the Second Council 669

WILLIAM I This merely marked the start of the conquest of England. To begin with William sought to emphasize William to start aggressive operations on his southern the continuity of his rule with that of Edward, and to border, capturing the frontier fortresses of Domfront use Englishmen in his government. His first earl of and Alençon in 1051/52. This in turn brought him into Northumbria, Copsi, was an Englishman, and even conflict with the overlord of Maine, Count Geoffrey Archbishop Stigand of Canterbury, whose appointment Martel of Anjou, and with his erstwhile ally King Henry, had been canonically dubious and who was regarded and was also followed by renewed revolt in Normandy with disapproval by the papacy, was retained until by a hitherto loyal supporter, his uncle Count William 1070. But widespread rebellion, in the west and north of Arques. The Duke’s position was saved by his own in 1068, and more seriously in the north and in the fen military prowess and activity, and smashing defeats country of East Anglia in 1069 and 1070¾the latter were inflicted on French armies at Mortemer in 1054 with Danish support—led to a major change in policy and Varaville in 1057. The latter marked the end of the and the widespread replacement of English landowners young duke’s struggle for survival. by Frenchmen. The king was under obvious pressure to satisfy what Orderic Vitalis called “his envious and From 1062 onward William’s chief concern seems greedy Norman followers.” So serious was the revolt of to have been the acquisition of the county of Maine, 1069 that William resorted to the harshest of measures after the death of the childless Count Herbert II. He was to quell it, devastating much of Yorkshire to prevent aided in this by the fact that the new king of France, further rebellion and thereby condemning many of the Philip I, was a minor, while Anjou was weakened by inhabitants to death by starvation. Inured as they were a succession struggle between the sons of Geoffrey to violence, contemporary chroniclers were shocked by Martel. By 1065 William had placed a garrison in Le the barbarity of his actions. Mans, installed a Norman bishop, secured the fealty of the leading nobles of the county, and had his eldest But this drastic treatment worked. The last bastion of son, Robert, recognized as count. But his hold over English resistance, the Isle of Ely, surrendered in 1071. Maine was never fully consolidated and was to remain Thereafter William’s rule in England was not seriously a problem for the rest of his life. threatened. There was admittedly another rebellion in 1075, led by the Norman earl Roger of Hereford and In 1051 the childless king of England, Edward the the Breton earl Ralph of Norfolk, but this was crushed Confessor, had designated William, his cousin, as his by William’s subordinates, under the direction of Arch- successor. One source suggests that the duke visited bishop Lanfranc, while the king remained in Normandy. England in 1051. This seems unlikely, given how dif- Indeed, in his later years, William was largely an absen- ficult his position was in Normandy at that time; prob- tee ruler, not visiting the country at all between 1076 ably Archbishop Robert of Canterbury (a Norman) had and 1080 and spending eleven of his last fifteen years in acted as intermediary while on his way to Rome in that Normandy. In his absence England was ruled largely by summer. Whether Edward persisted in his intention of his half-brother Odo of Bayeux (until his disgrace and having William as his heir also seems doubtful; he may imprisonment in 1082) and Lanfranc. Queen Matilda have changed his mind several times. William’s chance played a similarly crucial role in Normandy until her of securing the succession was much enhanced when death in 1083. his potential rival, Harold of Wessex, Edward’s brother- in-law, visited Normandy in 1064 or 1065 and was After 1070 renewed problems on the Norman fron- persuaded or forced to swear fealty to the duke and to tiers helped to keep William in the duchy. The king suf- support his claim. Many details remain obscure; we can- fered the only serious military setback of his life at Dol not be certain why Harold went to Normandy, whether on the Breton border in September 1076. Relations with Edward sent him or not, or even the date of his visit. the king of France, Philip, deteriorated. Maine became restive under Norman rule. And worst of all, the king’s Nor did it have any immediate effect on the English son Robert Curthose rebelled, probably in the spring succession. When Edward died on 5 January 1066 of 1078. There was an indecisive battle at Gerberoi in Harold succeeded him. The designation of 1051 and eastern Normandy in January 1079, in which William Harold’s oath had given William a casus belli, and he was slightly wounded. Although there was a temporary used them to orchestrate a propaganda campaign to reconciliation early in 1080, relations remained difficult secure recruits from all over France and to gain papal and Robert went into exile again in 1084. The root of support. The invasion was launched, after some delays, the problem seems to have been Robert’s wish to have at the end of September 1066, and on 14 October the an independent role in Normandy, of which he had been Norman and English armies met a few miles north of designated as duke before Hastings, and William’s de- Hastings. After a desperate struggle the English were termination to keep his son firmly under supervision. defeated and Harold killed. Within two months the surviving English magnates and the church leaders had William’s last visit to England came in 1085–86, to surrendered, and William was crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. 670

organize the defense of the kingdom against a threat- WILLIAM OF AUVERGNE ened Danish invasion. But the most important result of this visit was the Domesday Book. Its purpose has van Houts, Elisabeth M.C., ed, and trans. The Gesta Norman- been much debated. Probably it was a guide to both the norum Ducum of William of jumièges, Orderic Vitalis and resources of the country and the ownership of particular Robert of Torigni. 2 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, estates, made necessary by the large-scale redistribution 1992–95. of land caused by the Conquest. Wilson, David M., ed. The Bayeux Tapestry: The Complete The first draft of the Domesday survey was probably Tapestry in Colour. London: Thames & Hudson; New York: nearly completed when William held a court at Salisbury Knopf, 1985 [fascinating illustrated account of the campaign in August 1086, where he exacted a comprehensive of 1066]. oath of loyalty from his magnates and the more impor- tant of their undertenants. Eleven months later, when Secondary Sources campaigning at Mantes on the Norman border, he was taken seriously ill. He was carried to Rouen, where he Barlow, Frank. Edward the Confessor. Berkeley: University of died on 9 September 1087. On his deathbed he agreed California Press, 1970. to Robert’s succession as duke of Normandy, his second surviving son, William Rufus, succeeding as king of Bates, David. Normandy before 1066. London: Longman, 1982 England. He was buried at the monastery of St. Étienne Bates, David. William the Conqueror. London: Philip, 1989 at Caen, which he himself had founded a quarter of a century earlier. [excellent bibliography]. Douglas, David C. William the Conqueror. London: Eyre & Much of William’s success came from a partnership with a small group of Norman nobles, such men as Spottiswoode, 1964. William Fitz Osbern, Roger de Montgomery, and his John, Eric. “Edward the Confessor and the Norman Succession.” own half-brothers. It was not surprising that this group of seven or eight men were the chief beneficiaries of EHR94 (1979): 241-67. the Conquest. In ecclesiastical matters his chief adviser Le Patourel, John. The Norman Empire. Oxford: Clarendon, was Lanfranc, abbot of St. Étienne at Caen in 1063 and archbishop of Canterbury in 1070. Though favoring the 1976. moral reform of the clergy, William was always con- Loyn, H.R. The Norman Conquest. 3d ed. London. cerned to vindicate his own control of the church and to Hutchinson, 1982 [the best of several general books]. limit papal interference. He was not above appointing van Houts, Elisabeth M.C. “The Origins of Herleva, Mother of his half-brother Odo as bishop when the latter was well below the canonical age. After 1066 he was generally William the Conqueror.” EHR101 (1986): 399–404. content to adopt existing English laws and institutions but to exploit them to the full; contemporaries agreed Graham A. Loud that his government was harsh and predatory. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle called him “stern beyond all WILLIAM OF AUVERGNE measure to people who resisted his will.” (WILLIAM OF PARIS; 1180/90–1249) William was tall, strong, and of harsh voice and Born in Aurillac in the Auvergne, William was canon imposing appearance, tending to corpulence in later of Notre-Dame in Paris by 1223, regent master at Paris life. He married ca. 1050 Matilda, daughter of Bald- in 1225, and bishop of Paris in 1228. A secular master win V of Flanders, by whom he had four sons (one of himself, William was, however, an early champion of the whom, Richard, died young) and four or perhaps five mendicant orders, allowing Roland of Cremona to hold daughters. the first Dominican chair in theology (1229). Known for his fairness and good sense, he was confessor to Blanche See also Edward the Confessor; of Castile and friend and adviser to Louis IX. Harold Godwinson; Lanfranc of Bec William left a vast corpus of works in encyclopedic Further Reading style, including a series of tracts sometimes called his Magisterium divinale (1123–40), which included Primary Sources De universo. Cur Deus homo, De fide et legibus, and De Trinitate. His De vitiis et virtutibus rivaled that of Chibnall, Marjorie, ed. and trans. The Ecclesiastical History of William Peraldus (the two men were often confused) Orderic Vitalis. 6 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1969–80. in popularity. One of the first theorists of Purgatory, he was also among the first theological users of Aristotle Foreville, Raymonde, ed. and trans, (into French). Histoire de in Paris, and he sought out texts of Avicenna, Mai- Guillaume le Conquérant. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1952 monides’s Guide, Avicebrol, and others in the service [the chronicle of William of Poitiers]. of orthodox belief. See also Blanche of Castile; Louis IX Further Reading William of Auvergne. Opera omnia. 2 vols. Paris: Andraeas Pralard, 1674; repr. Frankfurt am Main: Minerva, 1963. ——. De Trinitate, ed. Bruno Switalski. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1976. ——. The Immortality of the Soul = De immortalitate animae, trans. Roland J. Teske. Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1991. 671

WILLIAM OF AUVERGNE Further Reading ——. The Trinity, or, The First Principle = De Trinitate, seu De William of Conches. Glosae in luvenalem, ed. Bradford Wilson. primo principio, trans. Roland j. Teske and Francis C. Wade. Paris: Vrin, 1980. Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1989. ——. Glosae super Platonem, ed. Édouard Jeauneau. Paris: Bernstein, A.E. “Esoteric Theology: William of Auvergne on the Vrin, 1965. Fires of Hell and Purgatory.” Speculum 57 (1982): 509–31. ——. Philosophia, ed. Gregor Maurach with Heidemarie Telle. Marrone, Steven P. William of Auvergne and Robert Grosseteste: Pretoria: University of South Africa, 1980. New Ideas of Truth in the Early 13th Century. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983. ——. Das Moralium dogma philosophorum des Guillaume de Conches, lateinisch, altfranzösich und mittelnieder-frankisch, Quentin, Albrecht. Naturkenntnisse und Naturanschauungen bei ed. John Holmberg. Uppsala: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1929. Wilhelm von Auvergne. Hildesheim: Gerstenberg, 1976. Gregory, Tullio. Anima mundi: la filosofia de Guglielmo di Rohls, Jan. Wilhelm von Auvergne und der mittelalterliche Conches e la scuola di Chartres. Florence: Sansoni, 1955. Aristotelismus: Gottesbegriff und aristotelische Philosophie zwischen Augustin und Thomas von Aquin. Munich: Kaiser, Häring, Nikolaus M. “Commenatry and Hermeneutics.” In Re- 1980. naissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century, ed. Robert L. Benson and Giles Constable with Carol D. Lanham. Cam- Valois, Noel. Guillaume d’Auvergne, évêque de Paris (1228– bridge: Harvard University Press, 1982, pp. 173–200. 1249), sa vie et ses ouvrages. Paris: Picard, 1880. Jeauneau, Édouard. “Deux rédactions des gloses de Guillaume Lesley J. Smith de Conches sur Priscien.” Recherches de théologie ancienne et médiévale 27 (1960): 212–47. WILLIAM OF CONCHES (ca. 1085–ca. 1154) ——. “Lectio philosophorum”: recherches sur l’École de Char- tres. Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1973. Named by John of Salisbury as one of his teachers, Wil- liam is most often associated with the so-called School Parent, Joseph-Marie. La doctrine de la création dans l’École de of Chartres, as a student of Bernard of Chartres and a Chartres: études et textes. Paris: Vrin, 1938. master there, although Richard W. Southern has called into question whether William actually taught at Char- Southern, Richard W. Platonism, Scholastic Method, and the tres, as opposed to Paris. John of Salisbury calls Wil- School of Chartres. Reading: University of Reading, 1979. liam a grammarian, and much of William’s extant work is in the form of glosses on authoritative texts widely Wetherbee, Winthrop. Platonism and Poetry in the Twelfth used in the schools. He glossed Boethius’s De consola- Century: The Literary Influence of the School of Chartres. tione Philosophiae, Macrobius’s In somnium Scipionis, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972. Plato’s Timaeus, Priscian’s Institutiones grammaticae, and Juvenal. He may be the author of Moralium dogma Grover A. Zinn philosophorum. His gloss on De consolatione identified the World Soul with the Holy Spirit, although the gloss WILLIAM OF OCKHAM (ca. 1285–1347) on the Timaeus presents the World Soul as a concept with many hidden meanings. William’s glosses on Philosopher and Franciscan theologian. William studied Macrobius and the Timaeus analyze the nature of fabula in London and Oxford. His writings include commentar- and integumentum as these apply to the “cloaking” of ies on the Sentences of Peter Lombard and lectures on philosophical and theological truth in words and images Aristotle’s logic and physics and reflect the influence of in literary texts and imaginative narratives. William’s his fellow Franciscan John Duns Scotus (d. 1308). interest in physics and cosmology is revealed in his Philosophia mundi (entitled Dragmaticon in a later Ockham was an outstanding dialectician and theolo- revision), a systematic treatment of physical, cosmo- gian, but his outspoken views were not without contro- logical, geographical, and meteorological phenomena versy. Although summoned in 1324 to the papal court and questions, summing up scientific knowledge in the at Avignon to justify his teaching on transubstantiation, era before the translation of Aristotle’s scientific works. there was no formal condemnation of his doctrines. His He sought to discern the true workings of nature and study of the papal constitutions on apostolic poverty led shunned “miraculous” explanations, even for biblical to his involvement in the debate over Franciscan poverty events, when a more straightforward explanation might and the attack on John XXII (1316–34) as a heretic. be found. William made use of translations-adaptations Under the protection of Emperor Louis IV of Bavaria, of medical works from the Arabic, such as Constantine the political opponent of the pope, Ockham wrote sev- the African’s Pantegni. eral political works, including the Dialogue, where he discussed his views on the errors of the papacy and its See also John of Salisbury; Macrobius; rights with respect to the Holy Roman Empire. Martianus Capella Ockham’s doctrines marked a turning point in the his- tory of philosophy and theology. He held that logic was separate from theology, that they are both true, and that they represent different kinds of truth. Thus theology cannot be proved by logic. This via moderna (“modern way”) marked the separation between faith and reason and was a hallmark of late-medieval philosophy. 672

Ockham is usually associated with the rule of “Ock- WILLIAM OF SAINT-THIERRY hams razor.” Known also as the law of parsimony or economy, the dictum became a foundation stone of Further Reading scientific method: the simpler a theory or explanation is, the less chance for error. Douie, Decima L. The Conflict Between the Seculars and the Mendicants at the University of Paris in the Thirteenth Cen- Ockham died 10 April 1347 in Munich and was tury. London: Blackfriars, 1954. buried in the Franciscan church. His nominalist phi- losophy, which emphasized the fundamental reality of Dufeil, M.M. Guillaume de Saint-Amour et la polémique univer- individually existing things, and his political theory on sitaire parisienne, 1250–1259. Paris: Picard, 1972. the limitation of papal power, were to be highly influ- ential in Reformation thought. Lesley J. Smith See also Duns Scotus, John WILLIAM OF SAINT-THIERRY (1070/90–1148) Further Reading Born in Liège, William of Saint-Thierry studied at the Courtenay, William J. “Nominalism and Late Medieval Thought: schools of Reims and perhaps at Laon under Anselm A Bibliographical Essay.” Theological Studies 33 (1972): of Laon, where he may have met Peter Abélard. For 716–34 unknown reasons, he renounced his studies and in 1113 became a monk in the Benedictine monastery of Courtenay, William J. “Late Medieval Nominalism Revisited: Saint-Nicasius in Reims. In 1118, he became abbot of 1972–1982.” Journal of the History of Ideas 44 (1983): Saint-Thierry, near Reims. As a close friend and admirer 159–64 of Bernard of Clairvaux, he wished to change orders and become a Cistercian. However, Bernard dissuaded Leff, Gordon. William of Ockham: The Metamorphosis of him until 1135, when William became a monk in the Scholastic Discourse. Manchester: Manchester University newly founded Cistercian monastery of Signy, where Press, 1975 he died in 1148. William of Ockham. Philosophical Writings: A Selection. Ed. and On several occasions, William encouraged Bernard’s trans. Philotheus Bohner. Edinburgh: Nelson, 1957. literary activities. Bernard’s early work, the Apologia, a fierce attack on the traditional Benedictine monastic Phyllis B. Roberts lifestyle, was written at William’s request and dedicated to him. About 1138, William, shocked by the theological WILLIAM OF SAINT-AMOUR audacity of Abélard, persuaded Bernard to oppose him, (ca. 1200–1272) adding to his request a list of Abélard’s errors, published as the Disputatio adversus Abaelardum. Bernard’s William is now chiefly remembered for his ferocious intervention resulted in Abélard’s condemnation at the campaign against the mendicant orders. We know noth- Council of Sens in 1141. William was also instrumental ing of his life until he became master of arts in Paris (by in bringing about Bernard’s famous series of sermons 1228). By November 1238, he had received the doctorate on the Song of Songs. When both were ill, they spent in canon law and was also canon of Beauvais and rector some time together in the infirmary of Clairvaux, talk- of Guerville. He went on to study theology in Paris and ing about the Canticle. William also intended to write ca. 1250 was a regent master. a life of Bernard but completed only the first book, the so-called Sancti Bernardi vita prima. From about this time, William began his attacks on the mendicant way of life, and it was through his influ- William published many works on devotional and ence that the Dominicans were suspended from teaching exegetical themes, among which are the Expositio in in 1254 for having in effect broken the closed shop of epistolam ad Romanos (in reaction to Abélard’s com- masters by ignoring the suspension of classes in the mentary on Paul’s Epistle to the Romans), the Expositio previous year and continuing to teach. super Cantica canticorum (a commentary on the Song of Songs), as well as two compilations on the Song of William never substantially amended his views on Songs from the works of Ambrose and Gregory the the mendicants, and his subsequent fate depended on Great and a treatise on the relation between body and who was pope at the time. Innocent IV (r. 1243–54) soul (De natura corporis et animae). Author of De was sympathetic, and he flourished. Alexander IV (r. natura et dignitate amoris and De contemplando Deo, 1254–61) was cardinal protector of the Franciscans, William is also considered to be the author of the famous and William was deprived of his privileges and expelled Epistola ad fratres de Monte Dei, about the solitary and from France. Clement IV, although disagreeing, allowed contemplative life. him to return to Saint-Amour, where he died. His most famous polemical work is De periculis novissimorum For William, the act of faith is part of and subsumed temporum (1256). 673

WILLIAM OF SAINT-THIERRY his own emphasis rather than following slavishly the demands of the genre. under mystical knowledge and contemplation. Faith is a pretaste of the vision of the divine. Reason helps faith The Wigalois romance consists of 11,708 verses and in the process of understanding itself, raising it to the is written in rhymed couplets. The story of Gawein’s level of full mystical knowledge characterized by love. son, it is divided into five distinct parts: the hero’s William supports his reflections on mystical knowledge upbringing in his mother’s fairy kingdom; his arrival at with quotations from many sources, mainly patristic, Arthur’s court and his adventures in the Arthurian realm; while also frequently referring to profane, classical his adventures in the otherworldly realm of Korntin and authors. He, like the “monastic theology” he helped to ultimate triumph over the prince of darkness, the heathen create, can thus be seen as part of the so-called 12th- King Roaz of Glois; the hero’s wedding and coronation; century renaissance. and the avenging of the murder of a wedding guest. While earlier scholarship insisted on viewing Wirnt’s See also Abélard, Peter; Anselm of Laon; Bernard hero as the unproblematic knight of fortune’s wheel, of Clairvaux more recent work detects a flawed character in need of God’s mercy who submits to the will of God. It is God Further Reading who provides the supreme guidance through the super- natural obstacles of Korntin and grants victory. Wirnt’s William of Saint-Thierry. Opera. PL 180, 184, 185. novelty is the Arthurian knight as God’s champion in ——. On Contemplating God, trans. Sister Penelope. Kalamazoo: the eschatological conflict between heaven and hell. He uses the genre to send a message of apocalyptic urgency Cistercian, 1977. to his contemporary society, drawing obvious parallels ——. The Nature and Dignity of Love, trans. Thomas X. Davis. between that society and Wigalois’s antagonist. Both have lost sight of the ultimate good, and thus the story Kalamazoo: Cistercian, 1981. of Wigalois serves as a vehicle to reaffirm God’s grace ——. On Contemplating God; Prayer, Meditations, trans. Sister as our only hope for salvation. Wirnt’s romance has enjoyed surprising popularity, judging not only by the Penelope. Kalamazoo: Cistercian, 1971. relatively large number of extant manuscripts but also ——. On the Nature of the Body and the Soul, trans. B. Clark. by its influence on contemporary as well as subsequent German authors writing in the latter thirteenth and In Three Treatises on Man: A Cistercian Anthropology, ed. fourteenth centuries. Noteworthy later adaptations of Bernard McGinn. Kalamazoo: Cistercian, 1977. the story include a fifteenth-century chapbook, aYiddish ——. Exposé sur le Cantique des cantiques, ed. jean M. Déchanet, rendition transmitted in manuscripts from the sixteenth trans. Pierre Dumontier. Paris: Cerf, 1962. century, and a nursery tale dated 1786. Wirnt himself ——. The Mirror of Faith, trans. Thomas X. Davis. Kalamazoo: became the hero of Konrad von Würzburg’s verse narra- Cistercian, 1979. tive Der Welt Lohn, in which he is depicted as a knight ——. Lettre aux frères de Mont-Dieu (Lettre d’Or), ed. and trans. who learns to forsake the things of the world and to serve Jean M. Déchanet. Paris: Cerf, 1975 God. The story of Wigalois has also contributed valuable Bell, David N. The Image and Likeness: The Augustinian Spiri- material to the body of Arthurian iconography, ranging tuality of William of Saint-Thierry. Kalamazoo: Cistercian, from the Wigalois frescoes in Runkelstein castle near 1984. Bolzano in South Tyrol and woodcuts illustrating the Déchanet, Jean M. William of Saint-Thierry: The Man and His chapbook version to picture cycles in two of the manu- Work. Spencer: Cistercian, 1972. scripts. One of these, the parchment codex no. Ltk 537 of Leyden, is considered the only significant illuminated Burcht Pranger Arthurian manuscript of the fourteenth century. WIRNT VON GRAFENBERG See also Hartmann von Aue; Konrad von (fl. 1204–1210) Würzburg; Wolfram von Eschenbach Author of the Middle High German Arthurian romance Further Reading Wigalois, written between 1204 and 1210, Wirnt is thought to be a ministerial (clerical administrator) from Cormeau, Christoph. ‘Wigalois’ und ‘Diu Crone’: Zwei Kapitel the town of Gräfenberg north of Erlangen. zur Gattungsgeschichte des nachklassischen Aventiureromans. Zurich: Artemis, 1977. No documents associate him with any particular court at which Wigalois might have been written, but Freeland, Beverly M. “Wigalois A: A Prototype Edition of Wirnt Berthold IV, count of Andechs and duke of Meran, is von Gravenberg’s Wigalois.” Ph.d. diss., University of Cali- his most likely patron. References to characters from fornia, Los Angeles, 1993. Erec and Iwein as well as the first part of Parzival attest to the author’s familiarity with the works of his famous contemporaries Hartmann von Aue and Wolfram von Eschenbach. Although earlier treatments of the Wigalois story, such as Renaud de Beaujeu’s Le Bel Inconnu, existed outside of Germany, Wirnt insists that his source was a story told by a squire. It has been suggested that the citing of an oral source served as a pretext to set 674

Henderson, Ingeborg. “Manuscript Illustrations as Generic De- WITZ, KONRAD terminants in Wirnt von Gravenberg’s Wigalois,” in Genres in Medieval German Literature, ed. Hubert Heinen and Ingeborg southwestern Germany and figures from the Germanic Henderson. Göppingen: Kümmerle, 1986. epics. Fro Laichdenman, the local astrologer, betrays Lappenhausen to its enemies, and the village burns to the Kapteyn, J. M. N. Wigalois, der Ritter mit dem Rade. Bonn: ground. Bertschi, the only survivor, laments his failure Klopp, 1926. to follow the wise teachings of his mentors and moves to the Black Forest to lead the life of a hermit. Thomas, J. W. Wigalois, The Knight of Fortune’s Wheel. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1977. To underscore Wittenwiler’s method of alternating didacticism with bucolic bawling (gpauren gschrai), Ingeborg Henderson the manuscript differentiates by means of red or green marginal stripes those passages that can serve as stylis- WITTENWILER, HEINRICH tic models (red) from those that satirize peasant mores (ca. 1350–ca. 1450) (green). Read as an allegorical work, the Ring strongly associates peasants with images of a carnal and sinful Author of the Ring, a comic-didactic verse satire of the humanity; read politically, it expresses the disgust of an early fifteenth century, Heinrich Wittenwiler employs urban nobility faced with a series of peasant revolts. chiefly High Alemannic language in the poem, with occasional Bavarianisms. As shown by his knowledge Further Reading of the local dialect, which he places in the mouths of the peasants in the Ring, Wittenwiler probably stemmed Jones, George Fenwick, trans. Wittenwiler’s Ring and the Anony- from the Toggenburg area of Switzerland. The poem mous Scots Poem Colkelbie Sow. Chapel Hill: University of exists in only one manuscript, located in the Meiningen North Carolina Press, 1956; rpt. New York: AMS, 1969. (Thuringia) archives. Lutz, Eckhart Conrad. Spiritualis Fornicatio. Sigmaringen: Wittenwiler served as advocatus curiae at the epis- Thorbecke, 1990. copal court in Constance, where, as a high official of the bishop, he would have moved in circles favorable to Plate, Bernward. Heinrich Wittenwiler. Darmstadt: Wissen- the Austrian nobility and inimical to disruptive forces schaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1977. such as the city guilds and the Bund ob dem See (Dutch marine commerce alliance). His use of Sachliteratur Riha, Ortrun. Die Forschung zu Heinrich Wittenwilers “Ring” (technical writing) shows him to have been a man of 1851–1988. Würzburg: Königshausen and Neumann, 1990. great learning and wide-ranging interests. He is men- tioned in documents from the last two decades of the Wießner, Edmund. Heinrich Wittenwilers “Ring.” Leipzig: fourteenth century, although the composition of the Ring Redam, 1931; rpt. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchge- falls in the first decade of the fifteenth, probably during sellschaft, 1964. the episcopate of Albrecht Blarer. Wittenwiler, Heinrich. Der Ring, ed. Rolf Bräuer, George F. Wittenwiler derived the basic structure of the Ring Jones, and Ulrich Müller. Göppingen: Kümmerle, 1990 from the short force Metzen hochzît (Metz’s Wedding), [facsimile ed.]. but expanded it to almost ten thousand lines with ex- tensive allegorical, didactic, and satirical passages. Set Jim Ogier in the village of Lappenhausen, the first of three sec- tions deals with Bertschi Triefnas’s devotion to Mätzli WITZ, KONRAD Rüeren-zumph, the antipode of all ideals of courtly (ca. 1400/1410–1445/1446) beauty. During his wooing, Bertschi accidentally in- flicts a head wound on Mätzli, who, while receiving In 1896, Daniel Burckhardt of the Öffentlichen Kunst- treatment, is impregnated by the doctor Chrippenchra. sammlung in Basle published his observations on the To cover up his misdeed, the doctor persuades Mätzli stylistic similarity between the panels of an incomplete to marry Bertschi. Heilsspiegel Altar (Altar of Human Salvation) in Basle and the panels from the St. Peter Altar in Geneva, which In the second section, a lengthy debate on the pros are signed by Konrad Witz and dated 1444. This artist, and cons of marriage, as well as instruction for Berts- whose distinctive style had little influence on later Ger- chi in religion, manners, virtue, hygiene, and home man art, had been forgotten since his death. economics, precede the wedding. At the wedding feast, the villagers display every possible form of bad man- Konrad Witz was probably born in Rottweil in Würt- ners and finally abandon themselves to wild dancing. A temberg circa 1400–1410; he is first documented by his minor incident at the dance leads, in the third section, to entrance into the Basel painters’ guild on June 21, 1434. an all-out war between Lappenhausen and neighboring The Council of Basle (1431–1437), which brought high Nissingen. The conflict escalates until it involves most of church officials to the city, thus increasing the possibili- ties for important artistic commissions, was probably the motivation for his move. On January 10, 1435, he became a citizen of Basle, and he married shortly thereafter. In 1441 and 1442 he was paid for unknown paintings in the Kornhaus (granary). One of the wings of 675

WITZ, KONRAD Gantner, Joseph. Konrad Witz. Vienna: A. Schroll, 1942. Rott, Hans. Quellen und Forschungen zur südwestdeutschen und his altarpiece for the high altar of St. Peter in Geneva is signed and dated 1444. In 1446 he is recorded as dead, schweizerischen Kunstgeschichte im XV. und XVI. Jahrhundert leaving his widow and five young children. 3: Der Oberrhein 2. Stuttgart: Strecker und Schröder, 1936, pp. 20–25. The Heilsspiegel Altar, dated circa 1435 and partially Schauder, M. “Konrad Witz und die Utrechter Buchmalerei,” destroyed and dismembered in the iconoclasm of 1529, in Masters and Miniatures: Proceedings of the Congress on was painted for the choir of the church of St. Leonhard Medieval Manuscript Illumination in the Northern Nether- in Basle. Based on the Speculum humanae salvationis lands (Utrecht, 10–13 December 1989), ed. K. van der Horst (Mirror of Human Salvation), which places Old Testa- and Johann-Christian Klamt. Doornspijk: Davaco, 1991, pp. ment an other prefigurations next to their fulfillment in 137–147. the New Testament and Last Judgment, it is the earliest and largest altar in this tradition in the fifteenth century. Marta O. Renger The center and predella (lower alter panel) are lost, but seven of the eight scenes from the inner wings survive. WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH Five are in the Kunstmuseum in Basle and the other (fl. first half of the 13th c.) two in the Gemäldegalerie in Berlin and the Musée des Beaux Arts in Dijon. Since they show Old Testament The greatest German epic poet of the High Middle or historical scenes with two figures standing before a Ages, Wolfram wrote Parzival, Willehalm, Titurel, and gold background, the missing center must have shown nine lyric poems. Internal evidence in his works makes their fulfillment: an Adoration of the Magi or a Christus it likely that he composed Parzival between 1200 and Salvator (Christ as Savior) are most often suggested. The 1210, worked on Willehalm after 1212, and left it unfin- outside panels seen on the closed altar showed single ished sometime after 1217, possibly as late as the 1220s. figures standing in narrow rooms. Five of the original Wolfram’s few lyric poems, most of them amorous eight survive: four in Basle and one in Dijon. exchanges between two lovers (“dawn songs”), were probably completed early in his career, and the two frag- The St. Peter Altarpiece (Geneva, Musée d’Art et ments that make up Titurel were composed either during d’Histoire) also lacks its center and predella, probably or after his work on Willehalm. Wolfram must have lived destroyed by iconoclasts in 1535, when the remaining from about 1170 to the 1220s. He names himself in both panels were separated. Today the inner wings show the Parzival and Willehalm and characteristically interjects Adoration of the Magi on the left and the donor pre- remarks about his personal life and circumstances, so sented to the Virgin by St. Peter on the right. The left that we seem to have ample biographical information outside wing represents the Miracle of Fishes and Call- about Wolfram. Yet it is difficult to know how much of ing of St. Peter, and the right outside wing the Freeing it is true or how much is only a pose. of St. Peter from Prison. The landscape of the Miracle of Fishes gives an accurate view of the shores of Lake If we take Wolfram at his word, he was a poor man, Geneva with the Savoy Alps and Mont Blanc and is con- probably not a ranked administrator (ministeralis, min- sidered to be the first topographical landscape portrayed isterial), dependent on wealthy patrons for support. He in northern European art. New research considers the must have been at the court of Landgrave Hermann of connection of this panel to the politics of Savoy. Other Thuringia, who, he says, provided the French source undated paintings attributed to Wirz are the Annuncia- for Willehalm, and he claims to have been a military tion (Nuremberg, Germanis ches Nationalmuseum), the man with a wife and young daughter. Wolfram was Meeting at the Golden Gate (Basel, Kunstmuseum), probably born in the Middle Franconian town of Ober- and Saints Catherine and Mary Magdalene in a Church Eschenbach, today renamed Wolframs-Eschenbach. (Strasbourg, Musée de l’Oeuvre Notre-Dame). His grave was seen there in the fifteenth century and again in the early seventeenth century, but there is no The physical presence of figures and materials is sign of it today. He was well acquainted with the works more important in Witz’s paintings than depiction of of the leading poets of his day: Heinrich von Veldeke, rich costumes or detailed settings. His tempera tech- Hartmann von Aue, Gottfried von Straßburg, Walther nique and strong, simple colors increase the immobility von der Vogelweide, and Neidhart von Reuental. He that characterizes his figures, and strong shadows help surely knew Eilhart von Oberge’s Tristant, the German to define his space. The forms on the outside wings in Alexanderlied, Rolandslied, Kaiserchronik, Nibelun- their narrow rooms resemble those in some miniatures genlied, and other heroic sagas. Yet Wolfram claims of the Utrecht school circa 1430. not to be able to read or write (see Parzival strophe 115, ll. 27–30; Willehalm 2,16–22). Such remarks may Further Reading well have been made in reaction to poets like Hartmann and Gottfried, who boasted of their learning and their Deuchler, Florens. “Konrad Witz, la Savoie et l’Italie: Nouvelles literary abilities. hypothèses à propos du retable de Genève.” Revue de l’art 71 (1986): 7–16. 676

Wolfram’s Parzival, an Arthurian romance of over WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH 25,000 lines in rhymed couplets, is based on Chrétien de Troyes’s Perceval (also called Le Conte del Graal). would come and Anfortas would be healed if he asked It is not a translation in the modern sense, rather an the question without prompting during the first night. adaptation, expansion, and completion of Chrétien’s The stranger would then become Grail King. work. There are several important differences. Chrétien’s romance is unfinished. Although there are Of course, Parzival is destined to be that stranger. He several continuations, his work stops after 9,234 lines. grows up ignorant of knighthood until he encounters Wolfram provides his Parzival with a detailed prehis- some knights, riding through the forest. Impressed by tory and brings his story to a logical conclusion, while their armor, Parzival is intent on becoming a knight maintaining the general sequence of events found in his himself. His desire for knighthood stems from the source. The prehistory (the first two books) deals with paternal side of his genetic makeup, and his mother Parzival’s father, Gahmuret, and how he eventually mar- reluctantly allows him to leave. Still, she dresses him ries Herzeloyde, but is killed in battle. Striken by the in fool’s clothing in the hope that the ridicule he will news of Gahmuret’s tragic death, Herzeloyde gives birth surely receive will force his return. However, Parzival’s to Parzival and resolves to raise him in the wilderness, handsome appearance impresses people, and he eventu- far from the knightly world of the court. ally reaches King Artus’s court, only to be told that he should get his own armor by attacking Ither, a knight Wolfram takes Chrétien to task in an epilogue for not outside the court who is feuding with Artus, if he wants having told the story properly then goes on to say that to become a knight. a certain “Kyot,” who told the true tale, might well be angry about that (Parzival 827, 1–4). Earlier Wolfram Parzival kills Ither with his crude javelin, unaware had claimed Kyot as his source on several occasions and that Ither is a blood relative, strips him of his armor, puts had gone into great detail about how Kyot had found the it on, and rides off on Ither’s horse. He arrives at the true story of the Grail in a discarded Arabic manuscript castle of Gurnemanz, who gives him a short course in in Toledo. In the manuscript there was a report about the knightsmanship and admonitions about how to behave Grail and the Grail family by a part-Jewish astronomer as a knight. Traveling on to Pelrapeire, Parzival wins named Flegetanis, who had read about the Grail in the the beautiful Condwiramurs by defeating her besiegers. stars. Kyot, a Provençal Christian, had to learn Arabic After some rime, Parzival leaves Condwiramurs to visit to read the manuscript. Then he read in Latin chronicles his mother, but he arrives instead unwittingly at Mun- and finally found the story of the Grail Family, which salvæsche, the Grail Castle. There he is received with he eventually located in Anjou. All in all, an elaborate great honor, sees the Grail procession and the bloody invention, especially since we have no real evidence of lance, hears the lamenting of the people, and receives such a Kyot. a sword from King Anfortas, who is obviously in great pain. But Parzival, mindful of Gurnemanz’s advice not to Another striking difference between Wolfram and ask too many questions, remains silent. The next morn- his source is the nature of the Grail. In Chrétien it is ing the Grail company has disappeared, and Parzival a dish or bowl, in Wolfram a fantastic stone with the leaves to try to find them. Two days later, he comes to pseudo-Latin name of lapsit exillis. The angels, who King Artus’s court, which has been eager to meet the had remained neutral during Lucifer’s rebellion, were Red Knight, as he was called by the knights he had de- banished to the stone. Later, a human family became feated, and sent to Artus. His arrival occasions a feast at the guardians of the Grail and lived from the food and the Round Table, and Parzival is duly admitted to that drink that the Grail miraculously provided. Anyone who select company. At this crowning moment of Parzival’s has been in the presence of the Grail will not die for a knightly career, the ugly Grail messenger, Cundrie, ap- week thereafter, only a virgin can carry the Grail, and in- pears and castigates him verbally for having failed to scriptions appear on the stone to name children who are ask about An-fortas’s suffering. Publically humiliated, called to the Grail. They grow up to become knights and Parzival leaves, angrily blaming God for his shame and ladies and are sent out to occupy thrones that lack rulers. determined to find the Grail and rectify things. The knights defend the Grail Castle and are forbidden to marry or to have a love relationship with a woman After Parzival’s humiliation by Cundrie in front of (Wolfram calls them “templars”). Only the Grail King Artus and his knights, that other paragon of chivalry, may have a wife, but King Anfortas had been wounded Gawan, is challenged to defend his honor. He then by a poisoned spear while performing chivalric deeds in takes over center stage of the narrative with his quest the service of a lady, and been kept alive by the power for four queens and four hundred maidens held captive of the Grail, yet suffering excruciating pain. Neverthe- at Schastel Marveille. His adventures predominate from less, although the Grail cannot be found by any seeker, Book VII through XIV, except for Book IX, where the an inscription on the Grail announced that a stranger story returns to Parzival. Book IX is crucial for Parzival, angry as he is at God but with his thoughts on the Grail and his wife, Condwiramurs. Four and one-half years have passed since Parzival was at the Munsalvæsche and 677

WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH of people. For one it is a worldly success, for the other, a transcendent, spiritual achievement. had failed to ask the question. Now, on Good Friday, he is directed to his uncle, the hermit Trevrizent, who tells Wolfram’s other major work, Willehalm, is quite him about his family and his relationship to the Grail different from Parzival. Not only is it unfinished, but it King Anfortas. In addition, Parzival learns all about the is also not an Arthurian romance. Its source is the Old Grail, about his motner’s death, and the fact that he had French chanson de geste, La Bataille d’Aliscans, one killed a relative, Ither, in his effort to become a knight. of the twenty-four poems in the cycle about Guillaume Hesitatingly, Parzival admits that he was the one who d’Orange and his family. This is heroic poetry that revels had visited the Grail Castle but had not asked the ques- in combat and death, Christians against heathens, good tion. After this confession, Trevrizent gives Parzival against evil. Wolfram himself takes notice of the differ- a new understanding of the relationship of God and ence when he states: “Whatever I recounted earlier about humans, so that he makes his peace with God through fighting [. . .] ended in some way other than in death. penance. Nevertheless, he will still wander in search of This fighting will settle for nothing less than death and the Grail Castle. loss of joy” (Willehlm 10, 22–26).Yet for Wolfram, love and courtly attitudes are not lacking. Willehalm deals Gawan, in the meanwhile, has cleared his family with the conflict between religions and the love that name, rescued the queens from Schastel Marveille, makes the religious conflict tragic. It involves immense and won the hand of Orgeluse. He has one last task slaughter and suffering on both the Christian and the to complete: single combat with Gramoflanz in the heathen sides, and the religious differences and the hu- presence of his uncle, King Arms, who arrives with all man experience of the struggle give the work a much his court. Before that can happen, Gawan fights with greater depth. Although he has transformed the material Parzival but is spared when they recognize each other. of his source perhaps to an even greater extent than in Parzival rights in place of the wounded Gawan against Parzival, Wolfram still preserves the essential sequence Gramoflanz and defeats him. King Artus then arranges of events of his source as far as his story goes. One final a reconciliation among all the parties involved, and a difference: the chanson is written in tirades—stanzas of joyous nuptial celebration ensues. Parzival leaves the a varying number of ten-syllable lines, with each tirade, festivities alone and encounters his heathen half-brother, or laisse, having the same assonance. Wolfram uses the Feirefiz, in combat. Just when it appears that Parzival rhymed couplets of the courtly romance. will be defeated, Feirefiz throws aside his sword and magnanimously discloses his identity first. Now Par- Willehalm begins in the midst of the first great battle zival, with his new awareness of God and having been of Aliscans. The heathen emperor Terramer had sum- tested to the point of death, is ready to be summoned moned huge armies and landed not far from Willehalm’s to the Grail. Cundrie appears, announces that Parzival fortified city of Oransche. Terramer’s purpose is to force has been called, and they leave for Munsalvæsche ac- the return of his daughter Arabel to her husband, Tybalt, companied by Feirefiz. There Parzival asks the question, and to the religion of her people. Arabel, now called Anfortas is healed, and a short time thereafter Parzival Gyburg after her baptism, had fallen in love with Wille- is reunited with Condwiramurs, who arrives at the castle halm when he was a prisoner in heathendom. She had with their twin sons. helped him escape, left Tybalt to flee with Willehalm, and converted to Christianity. Her former husband and In Wolfram’s Parzival we see two ideal realms, that of her son have come with the Saracen forces. King Artus and that of the Grail. The knights of Artus’s Round Table represent the highest secular ideal of In the course of the first battle, Willehalm loses all chivalry, epitomized in the person of Gawan. The Grail his knights, including young Vivianz, who is the out- knights on the other hand have a special relationship standing fighter for the Christians. Willehalm himself to God. They are chosen for divine purposes. Parzival is barely able to escape the slaughter by donning the belongs to both realms by virtue of his inheritance: armor of King Arofel, whom he had slain, and riding from his father, the skill and desire to excel in knightly away through the heathen ranks, almost unnoticed. He combat; from his mother, his genealogical relationship spends the night at Oransche with Gyburg, then leaves to the Grail family and his destiny to succeed Anfortas early the next morning to seek help from King Louis. as King of the Grail Castle. We see in his story first his Gyburg is left to defend the fortress with her ladies and misguided striving to become an exemplary knight, a handful of survivors. then his angry confusion when he is humiliated at what should have been his moment of highest honor. Finally, Having arrived in Laon, Willehalm receives an he learns to adjust his sights from the goals of his own extremely cold welcome. King Louis and the queen, ambition and accept the purposes that God has for him. Willehalm’s sister, are most reluctant to do anything for The twofold structure of the work embodied in the him. Willehalm, in great rage at the insulting treatment figures of Gawan and Parzival shows both knights suc- and deeply concerned about Gyburg’s fate, grabs the ceeding in their particular tasks of freeing two groups queen by her braids and threatens to cut her head off. 678

When Willehalm’s rather, mother, and brothers, who are WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH present at court, hear what has happened at Aliscans and Oransche, they immediately pledge help. Eventually, stands, that with the tragic quality of the poem Wolfram Willehalm’s anger is appeased by the intervention of his has put an entirely new meaning into the substance niece, Alyze; Louis, whose life had also been threatened of his source and that for him any continuation of the by Willehalm, is mollified so that he, too, offers to send Rennewart story had become irrelevant. One further, imperial forces under Willehalm’s command to raise the more recent position is that Wolfram intended it to be siege at Oransche. a fragment. No matter how one looks at the ending, or lack thereof, Willehalm is still a powerfully moving Before setting out for Oransche with the French work, dealing with problems that have been with us, as troops, Willehalm obtains from Louis the services of Wolfram says: “since Jesus was plunged into the Jordan Rennewart, a huge young heathen who had been work- to be baptized” (Willehalm 4, 28f). Wolfram seems to ing as a kitchen boy, having rejected baptism. Rennewart have been deeply affected himself by the tragedy of is eager to fight, believing that his relatives had refused it all, if one can judge by his numerous self-reflective to ransom him after he was abducted by merchants. remarks throughout the poem. He asks for a gigantic club, bound with iron bands, as his weapon, but he forgets it repeatedly on the way The two fragments usually called Titurel from the to Oransche. (In Aliscans, Rainouras is a burlesque name of the old Grail King in the first line of the first figure who eventually dominates the fighting in the fragment deal with the two young lovers, Schionatu- second battle. Wolfram’s Rennewart, however, despite lander and Sigune, from Wolfram’s Parzival. It is as if some boorish acts, is portrayed as a young nobleman Wolfram attempted to flesh out the briefly mentioned in undeserved circumstances. He is actually Gyburg’s story of their tragic love. Written in four long-line long-lost brother!) strophes that resemble the Nibelungenlied strophes to a limited degree, the first fragment deals with the Willehalm hastens back to Oransche with the French discovery of the mutual love of the two young people, troops, only to discover that Terramer’s forces had and the second fragment describes an idyll in the woods withdrawn to the coast where the air was better without that is interrupted by the catching of a hunting dog who having stormed the fortress successfully. Gyburg and had been running through the woods trailing a fantasti- her meager forces had been able to hold them off. One cally elaborate leash with a story depicted on it. Sigune by one, Willehalm’s father and his brothers arrive with wishes to read the story to its end, but the dog escapes as their armies, and the stage is set for the second battle. she loosens the leash to read more and carries the leash However, before it begins, a meeting of all the leaders away. She promises Schionatulander her love as a reward takes place, at which all voice their resolve and sup- for retrieving the leash. We know from Parzival that port for the battle. Gyburg alone adds a temporizing Schionatulander gets killed in the attempt, and Sigune voice. Tearfully she expresses her sorrow that she is the is left mourning over his dead body when Parzival meets cause for the huge loss of life on both sides and makes her. A later poet named Albrecht (von Scharfenberg?) a moving plea for the Christians to spare the heathens, took on the task of completing Titurel, and he did so if possible. with a vengeance. There are over 6,000 strophes in his so-called Jüngerer Titurel, compared with Wolfram’s In the ensuing battle the Christians are victorious, but 170! Although it is poetically inferior, Albrecht’s work the loss of life on both sides is immense. Rennewart, was thought for a long time to be Wolfram’s because who had forcibly “persuaded” the wavering French not he identifies himself as Wolfram early on in the work, to desert, plays a leading role in the victory. Terramer disclosing his own name only at almost the very end. manages to escape to his ships, and the expected con- frontation between Rennewart and his father does not There are many problems in Titurel. These include take place. Indeed, when the battle is over Rennewart is the manuscript tradition, the precise text of the poem, missing. Willehalm grieves at the apparent loss of Ren- and the relationship of the two fragments to each other. newart and about the terrible slaughter that has occurred. Even the theme of love is treated strangely, portray- In a gesture of respect for the noble heathens, he gives ing the exuberance and joy of the naive young lovers orders to have their fallen kings embalmed and buried trying to act so properly as courtly lovers, yet with a according to their own rites. At this point the narrative background of impending tragedy on the basis of family breaks off. history. It is a work of changing moods with somberness predominating. Most scholars believe that Willehalm is a fragment, basing their argument on the fact that too many narra- Wolfram’s lyric poems generally describe the part- tive strands are left untied. Others feel that, for whatever ing of lovers at dawn and follow a tradition found in reasons, Wolfram may have been unable to finish it and Provençal and Old French poetry. For the most part devised an emergency conclusion (the Notdach theory). the lady is the dominant figure. She is the one who is Still others maintain that Willehalm is complete as it awake as dawn is breaking and must wake her lover so that he can leave without being seen. But Wolfram also 679

WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH ——. trans. Wolfram von Eschenbach: Titurel. NewYork: Ungar, 1984. includes a sympathetic watchman in several instances, and in one poem he is the dominant speaker. The poems Poag, James F. Wolfram von Eschenbach. New York: Twayne, generally end with one last embrace and then the tearful 1972 [good general introduction in English]. parting as the sun rises higher. Wolfram’s dawn songs, among the first in German of that genre, are marked Pretzel, Ulrich, and Wolfgang Bachofer. Bibliographie zu Wol- by their striking imagery and their sensitive portrayal fram von Eschenbach, 2d ed. Berlin: Schmidt, 1968. of the lovers. His few other poems are similar to more traditional Minnelieder (courtly love songs) but show Schmidt, Elisabeth. “Wolfram von Eschenbach: Parzival,” in Mit- his complete mastery of that type. telhochdeutsche Romane und Heldenepen, ed. Horst Brunner. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1993, pp. 173–195. See also Eilhart von Oberg; Gottfried von Straß- burg; Hartmann von Aue Schröder, Werner, ed. Wolfram von Eschenbach: Willehalm. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1978 [with German trans. Dieter Karts- Further Reading choke; rev. 1989]. Bumke, Joachim. Die Wolfram von Eschenbach Forschung seit Walshe, Maurice O’C. Medieval German Literature. Cambridge, 1945. Bericht und Bibliographie. Munich: Wilhelm Fink, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962, pp. 156–175 [concise 1970. treatment]. ——. Wolfram von Eschenbach, 6th ed. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1991; Wapnewski, Peter. Die Lyrik Wolframs von Eschenbach: Edition. 7th ed., 1997. Kommentar. Interpretation. Munich: Beck, 1972 [songs, with German trans.]. Gibbs, Marion E., and Sidney M. Johnson, trans. Wolfram von Eschenbach: Willehlam. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984. Sidney M. Johnson Gibbs, Marion E., and Sidney M. Johnson. Wolfram von Eschen- WOLGEMUT, MICHAEL bach: “Titurel” and the “Songs.” New York: Garland, 1988 (1434/1437–1519) [with English trans.]. Born in Nuremberg between 1434 and 1437, Michael ——. Medieval German Literature: A Companion. New York: Wolgemut was the city’s foremost painter and print- Garland, 1997, pp. 174–205. maker in the late fifteenth century. Wolgemut trained with his father, Valentin, a painter, and worked as a Green, D. H. The Art of Recognition in Wolfram’s “Parzival.” journeyman with Gabriel Mälesskircher in Munich Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. before returning to Nuremberg in 1471. A year later he married Barbara, the widow of the noted painter Hans Groos Arthur. Romancing the Grail. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Uni- Pleydenwurff. Whether he had collaborated earlier with versity Press, 1995 [on Parzival]. Hans is uncertain. Wolgemut developed a large work- shop that specialized in the production of large retables, Hatto, Arthur T., trans. Wolfram von Eschenbach: Parzival. Har- woodcuts, and designs for stained glass windows. The mondsworth: Penguin, 1980. artist’s pupils included his stepson, Wilhelm Pleyden- wurff, and Albrecht Dürer, who was in the shop from Heinzle, Joachim. Stellenkommentar zu Wolframs “Titurel.” 1486 until 1489. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1972. Wolgemut’s first documented painting is the high Heinzle, Joachim, ed. Wolfram von Eschenbach: Willehlam. altar completed in 1479 for the St. Marienkirche in Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Deutscher Klassiker, 1991 [with Zwickau. This complex polyptych includes painted German trans.]. wings depicting the Passion of Christ (exterior) and Infancy (middle) that cover the nine life-size standing ——, ed. Willehalm: nach der Handschrift 857 der Stiftsbiblio- statues of saints on the inner wings and in the corpus, a thek St. Gallen. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1994. painted and carved winged predella (lower altar panel), and a Last Judgment covering the back of the altar. Kiening, Christian. “Wolfram von Eschenbach: Willehalm,” in Wolgemut employed a team of now anonymous joiners, Mittelhochdeutsche Romane und Heldenepen, ed. Horst Brun- painters, and sculptors on this and similar elaborate proj- ner. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1993, pp. 212–232. ects, notably the Peringsdorfer Altar made circa 1486 for the Augustinian Cloister in Nuremberg (today in the Kühn, Dieter, trans. Wolfram von Eschenbach: Parzival. Frankfurt Friedenskirche) and the high altar (1506–1508) in the am Main: Insel, 1986. church of St. Johannes and St. Marrinus in Schwabach. In his paintings, including his independent portraits, Lachmann, Karl, ed. Wolfram von Eschenbach, 6th ed. Berlin: such as that of Levinus Memminger circa 1485 (Madrid, de Gruyter, 1926 [reprinted often]. Museo Thyssen-Borne-misza), Wolgemut displayed his familiarity with Netherlandish art, notably the works Leitzmann, Albert, ed. Wolfram von Eschenbach, 5 vols. Halle of Rogier van der Weyden and Dirk Bouts. His clearly (Saale): Niemeyer, 1902–1906 [reprinted often]. defined figures are located in the extreme foreground before deep landscapes. Lofmark, Carl. Rennewart in Wolfram’s “Willehalm”: A Study of Wolfram von Eschenbach and His Sources. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1972. Mertens, Volker. “Wolfram von Eschenbach: Titurel,” in Mittel- hochdeutsche Romane und Heldenepen, ed. Horst Brunner. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1993, pp. 196–211. Mohr, Wolfgang. Wolfram von Eschenbach. Titurel. Lieder. Göp- pingen: Kummerle, 1978, pp. 101–161. Mustard, Helen M., and Charles E. Passage, trans. Wolfram von Eschenbach: Parzival. New York: Vintage Books, 1961. Nellmann, Eberhard, ed. Wolfram von Eschenbach: Parzival. Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Deutscher Klassiker, 1994 [Ger- man trans. Dieter Kühn]. Passage, Charles E., trans. Wolfram von Eschenbach: Willehlam. New York: Ungar, 1977. 680

Today the artist is best known for his prints. In ad- WULFSTAN OF YORK dition to independent woodcuts, Wolgemut recognized the potential of illustrating books. The artist, his step- reform. The 12th-century Liber Eliensis (Book of Ely) son, and his shop supplied 96 woodcuts for Stephan provides the only medieval information, much of riiat Fridolin’s Schatzbehalter (1491) and 1,809 woodcuts questionable, about his life. using 645 different blocks for Hartmann Schedel’s Liber Chronicarum (Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493), both pub- When he assumed the sees of Worcester and York in lished by Anton Koberger in Nuremberg. The latter with plurality (holding both simultaneously) upon the death its maps, city views, portraits, and elaborate illustrations in 1002 of Archbishop Eadulf, Wulfstan had experi- was the century’s most ambitious publishing project and enced the worst ravages of the Danes and the largely was marketed across Europe. ineffectual responses of Æthelred’s army. With its rich library and scriptorium removed from the worst of the Wolgemut’s career spanned four decades. His last fighting Worcester provided him an opportunity to study major picture, the Epitaph of Anna Gross (Nuremberg, important patristic and canonical texts and thus to de- Germanisches Nationalmuseum), dates around 1509. In velop as a writer and reformer. Much of his work was 1516 Albrecht Dürer affectionately recorded his men- also done at York, where he performed the functions of tor’s likeness in a portrait (Nuremberg, Germanisches a leader of the church. Extant manuscripts from both Nationalmuseum). Wolgemut died on November 30, centers show Wulfstan’s hand in the annotations. In 1519, in Nuremberg. addition several versions of his “commonplace book” survive, containing collections of materials intended Further Reading for use in his own work. Either at Worcester or York he wrote versified entries for 957 and 975 in the D version Bellm, Richard. Wolgemuts Skizzenbuch im Berliner Kupfer- of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. stichkabinett. Studien zur deutschen Kunstgeschichte 322. Baden-Baden: P. H. Heitz, 1959. Wulfstan’s reputation grows from his sermons. These include a series of eschatological works, impassioned Fridolin, Stefan. Der Schatzbehalter: Ein Andachts- und Erbau- calls for repentance in response to signs of the coming of ungsbuch aus dem Jahre 1491, ed. Richard Bellm. 2 vols. Doomsday. Another series on the elements of Christian Wiesbaden: G. Pressler, 1962. faith treats the subjects of baptism, the Creed, the gifts of the Holy Spirit, and the duties of a Christian. In both Füssel, Stephan, ed. 500 Jahre Schedelsche Weltchronik. Pirck- series he draws on a variety of Latin sources largely from heimer Jahrbuch 9. Nuremberg: Carl, 1994. the Carolingian period and shapes his work to specific audiences. Only two of his sermons are proper to the Rücker, Elizabeth. Die Schedelsche Weltchronik: Das größte church year, and those address the matter of penance Buchunternehmen der Dürer-Zeit, 33d rev. ed. Munich: during Lent. Wulfstan’s sermons are topical, hortative, Prestel, 1988. and utilitarian messages rather than explications of the Gospels or hagiographic narratives. Scholz, Hartmut. Entwurf und Ausführung: Werkstattpraxis in der Nürnberger Glasmalerei der Dürerzeit. Ph.d. diss., The best-known sermon also seems to have been University of Stuttgart, 1988. Berlin: Deutscher Verlag für the most popular in its time: Sermo Lupi ad Anglos Kunstwissenschaft, 1989. (The Sermon of Wolf to the English), so called from the opening words of its rubric. Surviving in five manuscript Stadler, Franz Izra. Michael Wolgemut und der Nürnberger versions, this work probably was composed in 1014, the Holzschnitt im letzten Drittel des XV. Jahrhunderts. 2 vols. year in which Æthelred was exiled. The Sermo Lupi is Studien zur deutschen Kunstgeschichte 161. Strasbourg: J. noteworthy for drawing on themes and materials that H. E. Heitz, 1913. engaged Wulfstan throughout his career, here brought together and presented urgently when it seemed that God Strieder, Peter. Tafelmalerei in Nürnberg, 1350 bis 1550. König- was punishing the English at the hands of the Danes. In stein im Taunus: K. Robert, 1993, pp. 65–85, 200–219. particular Wulfstan uses phrases from his eschatological sermons in depicting the present evils that presage the Wilson, Adrian. The Making of the Nuremberg Chronicle. Am- end of the world. He ends with a typical exhortation to sterdam: Nico Israel, 1976. return to the faith of baptism, where there is protection from the fires of hell. Jeffrey Chipps Smith As trusted counselor to Æthelred, and to his Danish WULFSTAN OF YORK (d. 1023) successor Cnut, Wulfstan wrote a variety of legislation intended to reassert the laws of earlier Anglo-Saxon Bishop of London 996–1002, bishop of “Worcester kings and bring order to a country that had been un- 1002–16, and archbishop of York 1002–23, who served settled by war and the influx of Scandinavians. Although two kings (Æthelred II and Cnut) as adviser and author he put into writing edicts that had been decreed by the of legislation while addressing the pressing moral and ruling witan, or council, Wulfstan echoed there the ecclesiastical issues of his time. One of two great styl- ists in the history of OE prose (with Ælfric), Wulfstan had a distinguished career as a homilist and statesman. Although educated as a Benedictine, he was very much a public figure who began signing himself “Lupus” (“Wolf”) early in his career, as he developed a reputa- tion for spoken and written eloquence and for moral 681

WULFSTAN OF YORK See also Ælfric; Cnut concerns about present conditions and the urgency for Further Reading change expressed in his homiletic writings. The laws are of three distinct types: short codes addressing such Primary Sources specific issues as the need to christianize the Danelaw, protect the clergy and the church, and reinforce a hier- Bethurum, Dorothy, ed. The Homilies of Wulfstan, Oxford: archical social order consistent with the past; drafts of Clarendon, 1957. legislation for Æthelred and Cnut; and a comprehensive, formal code for Cnut. Through these legal writings Fowler, Roger, ed. Wulfstan’s Canons of Edgar. EETS o,s. 266. Wulfstan used his influence to press for social, moral, London: Oxford University Press, 1972. religious, and political reforms extending even to the obligations of the king. Jost, Karl, ed. Die “Institutes of Polity, Civil and Ecclesiasti- cal”: Ein Werk Erzbisch of Wulfstans von York. Schweitzer Beginning about 1005 a remarkable interchange oc- anglistische Arbeiten 47. Bern: Francke, 1959. curred between Wulfstan and his talented contemporary Abbot Ælfric of Eynsham. Wulfstan requested from Ure, James M., ed. The Benedictine Office: An Old English Text. Ælfric two pastoral letters in Latin treating duties of Edinburgh University Publications in Language and Literature the secular clergy. Shortly thereafter he asked Ælfric to 11. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1957. translate the letters into OE. Although the versions that survive today bear evidence of Wulfstan’s revisions, they Whitelock, Dorothy, ed. Sermo Lupi ad Anglos. 3d ed. NewYork: are important because they strongly influenced his own Methuen, 1966. prescriptions for the secular clergy, the Canons of Edgar, as well as the code he drafted for Æthelred at Enham Secondary Sources in 1008. These and other letters by Ælfric formed part of a group of canonistic materials including Frankish Bethurum, Dorothy. “Archbishop Wulfstan’s Commonplace capitularies and Wulfstan’s translation of Amalarius’s Book.” PMLA 57 (1942): 916–29. De regula canonicorum, materials that underlie one of Wulfetan’s sermons on baptism, his Institutes of Pol- Bethurum, Dorothy. “Wulfstan.” In Continuations and Begin- ity, and certain legal codes, in addition to the Canons nings: Studies in Old English Literature, ed. Eric G. Stanley. of Edgar. London: Nelson, 1966, pp. 210–46. Because they provide yet another strong example of Gatch, Milton McC. Preaching and Theology in Anglo-Saxon his reforming philosophy, Wulfstan’s own canonistic England: Ælfric and Wulfstan, Toronto: University of Toronto works command interest. The Canons of Edgar, so- Press, 1977. called because they hark back to better times during the reign of Edgar, provide instruction on proper conduct Ker, N.R. “The Handwriting of Archbishop Wulfstan.” In England and training for the secular clergy and detailed instruc- before the Conquest: Studies in Primary Sources Presented to tions on their duties, including how to conduct the mass. Dorothy Whitelock, ed. Peter Clemoes and Kathleen Hughes. The Institutes of Polity form a treatise on the organiza- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971, pp. 315–31. tion of society, an early example of estates literature that attempts to define the duties of each class. His lengthy Richards, Mary P. “The Manuscript Contexts of the Old English discussion of the bishop’s role provides insight into the Laws: Tradition and Innovation.” In Studies in Earlier Old career Wulfstan fashioned fot himself. Wulfstan also English Prose, ed. Paul E. Szarmach. Albany: SUNY Press, translated prose portions of the Benedictine office into 1986, pp. 171–92. OE, presumably to help the secular clergy with their devotions. Stafford, Pauline. “The Laws of Cnut and the History of Anglo- Saxon Royal Promises.” ASE 10 (1981): 173–90. The effectiveness of Wulfstan’s writing owes much to his rhythmic style, distinctive vocabulary, and use Whitelock, Dorothy. “Wulfstan’s Authorship of Cnut’s Laws.” of rhetorical figures. He usually wrote with two-stress, EHR70 (1955): 72–85. alliterating, sometimes rhyming phrases syntactically independent of one another, which he could use to build Wormald, Patrick, “Æthelred the Lawmaker.” In Ethelred the toward a powerful climax. His stylistic touches include Unready, ed. David Hill. BAR Brit. Ser. 59. Oxford: BAR, a large stock of intensifying words, repeated phrases, 1978, pp. 47–80. and forceful compounds. Figures of sound as taught by medieval manuals of rhetoric appear prominently in his Mary P. Richards work. All of these tools Wulfstan used in his attempts to restore England to the order and piety it had enjoyed WYCLIF, JOHN (ca. 1330–1384) before the Viking depredations. The most distinguished English philosopher and theolo- gian of the later 14th century and a significant influence on the emergence of the heretical Lollard movement. His popular fame as a church reformer, however, is largely unjustified and only dates from the Reforma- tion period. Wyclif was probably born in Yorkshire. For most of his adult life he was a scholar and teacher at Oxford, and only in his last decade did he make any impression on a wider stage, first as a royal servant and then as the inspiration of heresy. He first appears in the records as a fellow of Merton College in 1356, as master of Balliol College in 1360, and later as warden of Canterbury Hall, an appointment that involved him in a struggle with the regular clergy. He proceeded from Arts to Theology in 682

the late 1360s and became a doctor of theology about WYCLIF, JOHN 1372–73. He was, it appears, a conventional academic and like most of his contemporaries was supported, as out his precise belief in the nature of the eucharist, but an absentee, by the revenues of various benefices, none it may have come close to the later Lutheran doctrine of great value. He was granted a canonry at Lincoln of consubstantiation. in 1371, though the promise of a prebend there with substantial resources was never fulfilled. In 1374 he His influence survived his death, and his eucharistic was granted the Leicestershire benefice of Lutterworth, views were, in a simplified form, one of the hallmarks which was in the gift of the crown. of later Lollardy. More important perhaps was the production by his followers, under the influence of his This undoubtedly was a reward for services as a biblicism, of two English versions of the Bible, the staple polemicist and a diplomat. He defended the crown’s reading for heretical groups and material for works of right to tax the clergy and even its violation of sanctu- orthodox devotion. His philosophical views were taught ary in order to arrest crown debtors, and in 1374 he for a time in Oxford and spread also to Bohemia, where took part in a diplomatic mission to Bruges. By 1378 they influenced the thought of religious reformers. Later he was compelled to withdraw from politics, although his theological teachings also reached Bohemia and his lay patrons continued to protect him from the as- probably contributed to the more radical wing of Hussite saults of church authorities who had secured papal thought. A substantial number of Wycliffite manuscripts condemnation of his views on the subject of civil and have survived in libraries there. divine lordship. In 1381 he was forced to leave Oxford, retiring to Lutterworth, where he died of a stroke at the By this time the church authorities were taking steps end of 1384. Although his enemies alleged that he had against his writings. Forty-five articles from his works inspired the Peasant Rebellion of 1381, this view cannot were condemned at Prague in 1403, 267 articles were be substantiated and his earlier strong royatism makes condemned after Archbishop Arundel’s purge at Oxford it inherently unlikely. in 1409, and the attacks continued at the councils of Rome (1413) and Constance (1415). At the last a com- Increasing knowledge of the development of scho- mand was issued for the exhumation and burning of his lastic philosophy has enhanced Wyclif’s reputation as body, though this part of the sentence was not carried a thinker. A man of great learning and incisive mind, he out until 1428. was a vigorous defender of realist metaphysics against the nominalism of William of Ockham. In this he fol- See also Ockham, William of lowed the tradition active during his formative years in Oxford, but he went beyond his teachers as an inde- Further Reading pendent thinker. As a philosopher his views remained acceptable, but when he began teaching theology he Kenny, Anthony. Wyclif. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985 clashed with the authorities. [best introduction]. His early theological concern with questions of do- Kenny, Anthony, ed. Wyclif in His Times. Oxford: Clarendon, minion and grace probably arose more from his activities 1986 [valuable essays on many aspects of the man and his as a royal servant than from philosophical principles. influence]. Concurrently with his royal service, however, he became involved in biblical studies, writing a commentary on the Leff, Gordon. Heresy in the Later Middle Ages: The Relation of whole Bible, something none of his contemporaries did. Heterodoxy to Dissent, c. 1250–c. 1450. Manchester: Man- His reverence for scripture led to a fundamentalist view chester University Press, 1967 [a good summary of Wyclif’s of the Bible as eternally present in God and probably teachings]. influenced his denial of transubstantiation in the eucha- rist, an opinion in accord with his metaphysical views. McFarlane, K.B. John Wycliffe and the Beginnings of English There has been recent debate on whether metaphysics Nonconformity. London: English Universities Press, 1952 or biblicism gave the first impetus to this opinion, the [illuminating and good for biography unfair to Wyclif as a issue that led to his final breach with orthodoxy. Even thinker]. by the end of his life Wyclif had probably not worked Thomson, Williell R. The Latin Writings of John Wyclyf. An An- notated Catalog. Toronto: Pontifical Institute, 1983 [the best bibliographical treatment of Wydif’s writings]. Workman, Herbert B. John Wyclif: A Study of the English Me- dieval Church. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1926 [the fullest life, though the interpretation is colored by Reformation apologetics]. J.A.F. Thomson 683



INDEX Page numbers in italic indicate figure. Absalon, 593, 594, 614 Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Abdallah ibn Sina. See Avicenna A Abu¯ Bakr Muhammad ibn ‘Isa¯ ibn ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Quzma¯n Aaliz de Louvain, 531 Abélard, Peter, 1–2, 46 al-Asghar al-Zajja¯l. See Ibn Quzma¯n Abu¯ ‘L-H. asan ‘Al¯ı b. Mu¯sa¯ b. Muh.ammad b. ‘Abd al-Malik b. as abbot, 1 Anselm of Laon, 1 Sa’¯ıd. See Ibn Sa’¯ıd Bernard of Clairvaux, 70, 71, 673 Abu¯ Muhammad ‘Al¯ı ibn H. azm. See Ibn H. azm burial, 2 Abu¯ Yafar, poet, 293–294 charged with heresy, 1 Abu¯ Ya’qu¯b Yu¯suf, 52 condemned, 1 Abu¯ Yu¯suf, Mar¯ınid emir of Morocco Héloïse, 310 Historia calamitatum, 1 Alfonso X, El Sabio, King of Castile and León, 26 Peter the Venerable, 517 Castile, 26 Scito te ipsum, 2 Accursius, 220, 221 Sic et non, 1–2 Acerba (Cecco d’Ascoli), 117 On the Trinity and Unity of God, 1 Ackermann aus Böhmen (Bohemian Plowman) (Johannes von William of Champeaux, 1 William of Saint-Thierry, 673 Tepl), 377–378 Abbo of Fleury, 98–99 Adalbert, Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, 5, 37 Abu¯ Yu¯suf, 592 Adam de la Halle, 4–5, 98, 581 Abraham bar H. iyya, 2–3 Epistle to Rabbi Judah ben Barzillai, 3 Congé (farewell poem), 4–5 Hegyon ha-nefesh ha-’as.ubah (The Meditation of the Sad Jeu de la feuillée, 4–5 Jeu de Robin et Marion, 4 Soul), 3 Adam le Bossu. See Adam de la Halle H. eshbon mahalekhot ha-kokhabim (The Calculation of Adam of Bremen, 5 Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae Pontificum (History of the Astral Motions), 3 H. ibbur ha-meshih. ah ve-ha-tishboret (On Measuring), 2 Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen), 5 Megillat ha-megalleh (Scroll of the Revealer), 3 historian, 5 Sod ha-’ibbur (The Secret of Intercalation), 3 Adelperga, 504 S.urat ha-ares. ve-tabnit ha-shamavim (The Form of the Admiración operum Dey (Teresa de Cartagena), 106–107 Adoptionism, 19 Earth and the Figure of the Heavens), 3 Beatus of Liébana, 58 Yesode ha-tebunah u-migdal ha-emunah (The Foundations Aegidius Colonna. See Giles of Rome Ælberht, 18 of Reason and the Tower of Faith), 2–3 Ælfric, 6–8 Abraham Ibn Dau¯d. See Ibn Dau¯d, Abraham abbot at Eynsham Monastery, 8 Abravanel, Isaac, 3–4 Benedictine Reform, 6, 7 Catholic Homilies, 7 banker, 3 English writer and scholar, 6–8 Maimonides, 3 evangelical doctrine, 7 opposition to Aristotelian and Muslim philosophy, 3 Latin instructional texts, 8 political attitudes, 3 Lives of Saints, 7–8 tax collector, 3 writings, 3 685

INDEX Duns Scotus, John, 185 scientist, 15–16 Ælfric (continued) students of, 15 scientific writings, 8 Summa de creaturis (Book of the Creatures), 15–16 Sermon on the Sacrifice on Easter Day, 7 teacher of Thomas Aquinas, 15 translations, 6, 7 Albigensian Crusade, 287–288, 421 Wulfstan of York, 682 Blanche of Castile, 79 Peire Cardenal, 510 Aeneid (Virgil), 160, 164, 165, 432 Philip II Augustus, King of France, 526 Æthelbald, 26 Albigensian heresy, 177, 287 Æthelberht Albinus. See Alcuin Albornoz, Gil Alvarez Carrillo de, 17–18 Augustine of Canterbury, 51–52 Alfonso XI, King of Castile, 17 law, 51–52 education of clergy, 17–18 Æthelred, King, 27, 681–682 new legal code, 17 Æthelwold of Winchester, 6, 8, 9 papal court at Avignon, 17 attention to continental models, 9 political life of Castile, 17 Benedictines, Benedictine revival, 6 Spanish College at University of Bologna, 17–18 expelled secular clergy, 9 Albrecht III, Duke of Austria, 607, 663 founded or refounded monasteries, 9 Albrecht of Mecklenburg, 447 monastery of Abingdon, 9 Alcuin, 18–19, 551 monastic school, 9 Carolingian renaissance, 18–19 religious reformer, 6 Charlemagne, 18–19, 121 royal favor, 9 De virginitate, 21 Winchester cathedral, 9 influence of writings, 21 Æthelwulf, 26 liturgy, 19 Aetheria. See Egeria Aldhelm, 20–21 Afonso III, King of Portugal, 9–11, 25 Anglo-Latin letters, 20–21 Beatriz of Castile, 10 ecclesiastical affairs, 20 Blanche of Castile, 9 education, 20 disputes with Rome, 10–11 Alexander III, Pope, 552–553 expelling Muslims, 10 Frederick I Barbarossa, 229, 230 political accomplishments, 10–11 Alexander of Hales, 21–22 strengthening royal prerogatives, 10–11 theologian, 21–22 Afonso IV, King of Portugal, 174 Alexander the Great, 659–660 Afonso V, 3 Alexander (Ulrich von Etzenbach), 638–639 Africa (Francesco Petrarca), 520, 522 Alexanders Geesten (Deeds of Alexander) (Jacob van Agiographia (Uguccione da Pisa), 636 Aistulf, 608 Maerlant), 353 Alain de Lille, 11–12, 71 Alexandreis (Walter of Châtillon), 659 Anticlaudianus, 12 Alexandrine meter, 658 Cistercian order, 11–12 Alfonso de la Cerda, 592 De planctu Naturae, 12 Alfonso García de Santa Maria. See Cartagena, Alfonso de literary works, 11–12 Alfonso V, King of Aragón, the Magnanimous, 22–23 Parabolae, 11–12 wrote against Cathars, 11 influence on trade, 23 Albert of Hapsburg, Holy Roman Emperor, 91 Italian campaigns, 22–23 Albertanus of Brescia, 12–13 Renaissance culture, 23 Chaucer’s use, 13 unrest in Aragón, 22–23 legal treatises and addresses, 12–13 Alfonso V, King of Portugal, 628 precursor of Renaissance book collector, 13 Alfonso VI, King of León-Castile, 23–25, 172 social theorist, 13 battle of Zallaqah, 24 Albertino Mussato, 14–15 Burgundian alliance, 25 birthday elegy, 14 French cultural influence, 24–25 Ecerinis (The Tragedy of Ecerinus), 14–15 Murabit, 24, 25 poetry, 14–15 Muslim ta¯’ifa of Toledo and Zaragoza, 24 statesman, 14 partition of Navarre, 24 Thyestes, 15 Santiago de Compostela, 24–25 Albertist Aristotelianism, 15, 16 struggle for succession, 24 Albertus Magnus, 15, 15–16, 75 Alfonso VII, Gelmírez, Diego, Archbishop of Compostela, Arabic and Greek Aristotelianism, 15–16 De causis et processu universitatis (The Causes and 245–246 Alfonso X, El Sabio, King of Castile and León, 10, 25–26 Development of the Universe), 16 Dominicans, 15 686

Abu¯ Yu¯suf, Mar¯ınid emir of Morocco, 26 INDEX African crusade, 25 claims to Holy Roman Empire, 25, 26 Urban V, Pope, 34 Fuero Real, 26 Amalasuntha, 620 heirs, 26 Amor (love of God) concept, 58 Ibn al-Ah. mar, King of Granada, 25–26 Amorosa visione (Giovanni Boccaccio), 81 innovations in law and taxation, 26 Ancient Rhetoric (Buoncompagno da Signa), 96 Jaime I of Aragón, 25–26 Andrea di Nerio, 606 Muslims, 26 Andrea di Ugolino di Nino da Pontedera. See Pisano, Andrea Siete Partidas, 26 Andreas Capellanus (André le Chapelain), 35 Alfonso XI, King of Castile Albornoz, Gil Alvarez Carrillo de, 17 De amore (or De arte honeste amandi), 35 bastard children, 507 French author, 35 Alfred the Great, 6, 26–30 influence of Ovid, 35 Boethius, 28–29 Andrew of Saint-Victor, 35–36 Consolation of Philosophy, 28–29, 30 Biblical exegete, 35–36 Danish attacks, 26 Hebrew Bible, 35–36 encouragement of literacy, 27, 28 literal sense of Scripture, 35 father of English prose, 28 Andriolo de Santi, 31 influence on learning, 28–30 Angela da Foligno, Saint, 36, 355 law code, 27 Franciscan order, 36 Pastoral Care, 28, 29, 30 Liber de vera fidelium experientia (Book of the True political success, 27–28 production of vernacular books, 28 Experience of the Faithful), 36 Soliloquies, 28–29, 30 Liber sororis Lelle de Fulgineo (Book of Sister Leila system of burhs, 27 Allegoriae super tabernaculum Moysis (Peter of Poitiers), 515 [Angela] of Foligno), 36 Allegory and Effects of Good and Bad Government (Ambrogio visions, 36 Angelo Clareno, 36–37 Lorenzetti), 418 Angevin dynasty, 67, 572–573 Almagest (Ptolemy), 45 Eleanor of Aquitaine, 199 Al-Mancu¯r, 52 Anglo-Latin text, 66 Almohad empire, Muslim Spain, 215 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 26, 27, 28 Al-Mughrib fi H. ula¯ ‘l-Maghrib (Ibn Sa’¯ıd), 344 Wulfstan of York, 681 Al-Muqaddimah (Ibn Khaldu¯n), 342–343 Angoulême, Charles II the Bad, King of Navarre, 123 Alpetragius, 53 Anno II, Archbishop of Cologne, 37, 319 Alphonsus Burgensis. See Cartagena, Alfonso de Cologne rebellion, 37 Altichiero da Zevio monastic reform, 37 political acumen, 37 chapel of San Giacomo, 31 regent for Henry IV, 37 Italian painter, 31–32 Annunciation (Rogier van der Weyden), 644 Room of Famous Men in Carrara Palace at Padua, 31–32 Anselm of Bec, 2 votive fresco in Cavalli Chapel, 32 Cur Deus homo, 38 votive fresco of Coronation of Virgin, 32 De concordia, 38 Alvaro de Luna, 23–24 De processione Spiritus Sanctus, 38 López de Mendoza, Iñigo, 415 English theologian, 38 Alvarus, Paulus, 33 Henry I, King of England Córdoban author, 33 Córdoban Martyrs’ Movement, 33 disputes over homage and investiture, 38 Confessio, 33 exile by, 38 Eulogius of Córdoba, 33 Orationes sive meditationes, 38 Indiculus luminosus, 33 Proslogion, 38 letters, 33 William II Rufus, King of England Vita Eulogii, 33 clashed over church property, 38 Amadeo VI, Count of Savoy, 33–35 exiled by King, 38 Chiogga war, 34 right of investiture, 38 crusading, 34 Anselm of Laon, 39, 254 John V Palaiologos (Palaeologus), 34 Biblical commentator, 39 military victories, 34–36 French teacher, 39 northern Italian politics, 35–36 Glossa ordinaria, 39 Peace of Turin, 34 theological opinions, 39 regency, 33 Ansgar, Saint, 39–40 Benedictines, 39 founded first church in Scandanavia, 39 missionary in Denmark and Germany, 39–40 Scandinavia, 39–40 687

INDEX Church reformer, 46–47 condemned as schismatic, 46 Antapodosis (Liudprand of Cremona), 408 ecclesiastical reform, 46–47 Antequera, 22–23 Eugenius III, Pope, 46–47 Anthony of Padua, Saint, 40, 40–41 exiled, 46 Frederick I Barbarossa, 47 doctor of the church, 41 Hadrian IV, Pope, 47 Francis of Assisi, Saint, 40–41 Italian communalism, 46–47 Franciscan, 40–41 Roman republic, 47 Arnolfini, Giovanni, 644–645 Christological and Mariological doctrines, 41 Arnolfini Wedding Portrait (Jan van Eyck), 644–645 introduced theology of Saint Augustine, 41 Arnolfo di Cambio, 47–48, 541 patron of charity and marriage, 41 cathedral of Florence, 48 scriptural exegesis, 41 Charles of Anjou, King, 47–48 sermons, 41 curial patrons, 48 Antichrist, 633, 635 Italian architect, 47 Anticlaudianus (Alain de Lille), 12 Italian sculptor, 47 Antioch, independent Norman rule, 87 Opera de Duomo, 48 Antipope, Henry IV, King of Germany, 504 ornamentation, 47, 48 Antonio Pucci, 42 sepulchral works, 48 courtly love, 42 Arnórr Þórðarson jarlaskáld, 48–49 Dante Alighieri, 42 Haraldsdrápa, 49 Florentine poet, 42 Hrynhenda, 49 Giotto di Bondone, 42 Icelandic poet, 48–49 Antwerp (Orsini) Polyptych (Simone Martini), 456 Magnússdrápa, 49 Antwerp School, 364 Porfinnsdrápa, 49 Apatheia, 107 Ars amatoris (Ovid), 35 Apocalypse commentary, Beatus of Liébana, 58 Ars dictaminis, 96 Apologia pauperum (Saint Bonaventure), 89 Ars notaria, 96 Apostolic Brotherhood Art de dictier et de fere chançons (Eustache Deschamps), Dolcino, Fra, 176 Inquisition, 176 169 Aquinas, Thomas, 15, 16, 43–44, 655 Arthurian romance, 135, 300, 306, 674, 677–678 Aristotle, 43–44 Asceticism, 109, 158, 159 Dominican order, 43–44 Asher B. Yeh. iel, 49–51 Duns Scotus, John, 185 early life, 43 chief rabbinical authority in Germany, 50 Giles of Rome, 254, 255 halakhic procedure, 50–51 philosopher, 43–44 Ibn Adret, 51 Ptolemy of Lucca, 546, 547 illustrious students, 51 scholastic method, 44 Jewish law, 50–51 Siger of Brabant, 602 joined Jewish refugees from Germany in Spain, 50 Summa theologica, 43 Pisqey ha-Rosh, 50, 51 theologian, 43–44 responsa on daily life, 50 Arba’ah .turiym (Asher B. Yeh. iel), 50 Tosafot ha-Rosh, 50, 51 Arboleda de los enfermos (Teresa de Cartagena), 106–107 yeshivah in Toledo, 50, 51 Arbre de ciècia (Tree of Science) (Ramón Llull), 412 Asia, concepts of, 660 Archpoet, Reinald of Dassel, 44 Augustine of Canterbury, 51–52 Arezzo Polyptych (Pietro Lorenzetti), 416, 417 Æthelberht, 51–52 Arian Visigoths, 144 Gregory I, Pope, 51–52 Arianism, 406 missionary, 51–52, 272 Aristippus, Henry, 45 Augustinian rule, Dominican order, 177, 178 political activities, 45 Augustinianism Sicilian court figure, 45 influence on Petrarch, 519 translated Greek writings, 45 University of Paris, 185 William I of Sicily, 45 Wiener Schule (Viennese School), 607 Aristotle, 22, 52, 54, 90, 254, 469, 536, 547, 601, 671 Aureum repertorium (William Durandus), 668 Aquinas, 43–44 Autobiography, Guibert de Nogent, 278 Aristotelian scholasticism, 15, 16 Autohagiography, 189 commentaries by Averroès, 52 Ava. See Frau Ava Siger of Brabant, 601–602 Avanzi, Jacopo di Pietro, 31 translated by Aristippus, 45 Avenzoar. See Ibn Zuhr, Abu¯ Marwa¯n ‘Abd al-Ma¯lik Arnold of Brescia, 46–47, 293 Arnoldist sect, 47 688

Averroès, 52–54, 346 INDEX Abu ‘L-Wa¯lid Muh.ammad B. Ah. mad B. Rushd, 16 Colliget, 54 Bede the Venerable, 60–63, 101 commentaries on Aristotle, 52 author, 60–63 De Anima, 53 biblical commentary, 60–63 law, 52–54 De arte metrica, 61 medicine, 52–54 De natura rerum, 61 natural sciences, 53 De orthographia, 61 philosopher, 52–54 De temporum ratione, 61 Ecclesiastical History of the English People, 60–61, 62, 63 Avicenna, 16, 54–55, 647 historian, 60–63 Canon of Medicine, 54 History of the Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow, 62 Islam, 53–54 homilies, 62 medicine, 54–55 Letter to Ecgbert, 62–63 philosopher, 54–55 Northumbrian Golden Age, 60–63 Ayyu¯ bid dynasty, 588 Bedford, John, Duke of, 63–64 regent, 63–64 B Bacon, Roger, 57 Beguines, 359 Mechthild von Magdeburg, 462–463 Compendium studii theologiae, 57 encyclopedia of the sciences, 57 Behaim, Martin, 104 Franciscan, 57 Beheim, Michael, 64–65 observational experiments, 57 philosopher, 57 autobiographical verses, 64–65 scientist, 57 composer, 64–65 Baldwin I, Latin King of Jerusalem, 159, 160 Gedichte, 64 Ballata, 112 poet, 64–65 Balliol, Edward, 191 publisher, 64 Banditore (town crier), Antonio Pucci, 42 Belisarius, 388–389 Baptistry reliefs, Florence, Pisano, Andrea, 535–536 Belle dame sans merci (Alain Chartier), 129, 130 Bardi bank, 80, 509, 647 Bencivieni di Pepo. See Cimabue Bartholomew of Simeri, 525 Benedict of Nursia, Saint, 65–66, 107 Barukh, Rabbi Meir b., 49–50 Benedictine Rule, 65–66 Batman vppon Bartholome (Stephen Batman), 630 organizing monasteries, 65 Battle of Hastings, 296, 670 patriarch of western monasticism, 65–66 Beatos, 58 Benedict XI, Pope, 633 Beatrijs van Nazareth, 57–58 Benedict XIII, antipope, 22 Brabantine mystic, 57–58 Benedictine Reform, Ælfric, 6, 7 Cistercian nun, 57, 58 Benedictine Rule, 187 Van seven manieren van heileger minne (Seven Steps of in England, 65 Benjamin of Tudela, 66–67 Holy Love), 58 historian, 66 Beatrijs van Tienen. See Beatrijs van Nazareth merchant, 66 Beatriz of Castile, Afonso III, King of Portugal, 10 reports on Jews, 66 on travel, 66 legitimization, 10 Benoît de Sainte-Maure, 67 papal opposition, 10 Chronique des ducs de Normandie, 67 Beatus of Liébana, 58 Roman de Troie, 67 adoptionist controversy, 58 Berceo, Gonzalo de, 67–69 Apocalypse commentary, 58 Castilian poet, 67–69 Beaumanoir, Philippe de Remi, Sire de, 69 Duelo que fizo la Virgen, 68 Coutumes de Beauvaisis, 59 Loores de Nuestra Señora, 69 jurist, 59 master of cuaderna vía, 67 poet, 59 Milagros de Nuestra Señora, 69 Becket, Thomas, 59–60 Sacrificio de la Misa, 69 administrative skills, 60 San Lorenzo, 68 as chancellor, 60 Santa Oria, 68 clash over royal vs. ecclesiastical rights, 60 Santo Domingo, 68 Henry II, King of England, 59–60, 315, 316 Vida deSan Millán, 67–68, 69 John of Salisbury, 380 Berengar of Tours, 240 model archbishop, 60 Berlinghiero di Milanese, 88 reformer, 60 Bernard Gui, 69 saint and martyr, 59–60 author, 69 Flores chronicorum, 69 689

INDEX founder of Brigettine Order, 76, 77 mystic, 76–77 Bernard Gui (continued) Birth of the Virgin (Pietro Lorenzetti), 417 historian, 69 Bjarni Kolbeinsson, 77–78 Inquisition, 69 skald, 77–78 Black Death, 191 Bernard of Chartres, 69–70 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 82 philosopher, 69–70 Florence, 82 theologian, 69–70 France, 528 Pedro I the Cruel, King of Castile, 506 Bernard of Clairvaux, 1, 46, 70–71, 254 Petrarca, Francesco, 521 Abélard, Peter, 70, 71, 673 Philip VI, King of France, 528 author, 70 Black Guelfs, 91, 149, 162 Cistercian, 70–71 alliance with papacy and France, 162 crusades, 70 Blanche de Bourbon, Pedro I the Cruel, King of Castile, 502, founded monastery of Clairvaux, 70–71 Gilbert of Poitiers, 70 507 Peter the Venerable, 516, 517 Blanche of Castile, 79, 421, 671 Sermones super Cantica canticorum, 70 William of Saint-Thierry, 673 as advisor, 421 Afonso III, King of Portugal, 9 Bernard Silvestris, 71 Albigensian Crusade, 79 author, 71 balanced foreign policy, 79 Cosmographia, 71 crusades, 421 Marguerite of Provence, Queen of France, 448 Bernardus Guidonis. See Bernard Gui opposition to son’s crusade, 79 Bernart de Ventadorn, 72 Pierre Mauclerc, 534 regency, 79 troubadour, 72 success against baronial opposition, 79 Bernhardian tradition, 598 Thibaut de Champagne, 621 Berno von Reichenau, 72–73 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 79–84 Amorosa visione, 81 author, 72–73 Black Death, 82 composer, 72–73 Boethius, 81 Bernward of Hildesheim, 73 Buccolicum carmen, 80–81 Henry II’s diplomatic representative, 73 Cavalcanti, Guido, 111 Ottonian court, 73 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 132 patronage of arts, 73 Cino da Pistoia, 80, 142 Béroul, 73–74 circle of Petrarch’s acquaintances, 80 author, 73–74 Comedy of the Florentine Nymphs, 80–81 Tristan, 73 at court of Naples, 83–84 verse romance, 73 Dante Alighieri, 81, 82–83, 84, 166 Bersuire, Pierre, 74–75 De vita et moribus domini Francisci Petracchi, 81 Benedictine, 74 Decameron, 79, 82 encyclopedist, 74–75 education, 80 moralist, 74–75 Elegy of Lady Fiammetta, 81 Reductorium morale, 75 On Famous Women, 83 Repertorium morale, 75 Fates of Illustrious Men, 83 translator, 74–75 in Florence, 80–81, 82, 83, 84 Berthold V, Duke of Zähringen, 151 in Forlì, 81 Berthold von Regensburg, 75–76 framing tale, 82 Franciscan, 75–76 Genealogy of the Pagan Gods, 80, 83 Minorite order, 75 herald of Renaissance, 79–84 preacher, 75–76 humanist, 79, 82 Bertran de Born, 510 Il Filocolo, 80 Bertrand de Got. See Clement V, Pope Il Filostrato, 80 Bertrand du Guesclin, 124, 507 Little Treatise in Praise of Dante, 82 Bestiaire d’amours (Richard de Fournival), 564 lyric poems, 84 Bestiaire (Philippe de Thaün), 531 name Fiammetta, 81 Bestiary, 531, 564 in Naples, 80 Bevegnati, Giunta, 445–446 Ninfale fiesolano, 81 Bezocone, 357 novella, 82 Biblia Poliglota, 476 Biblioteca Marciana in Venice, Petrarca, Francesco, 521 Biography Díaz de Games, Gutierre, 171 Einhard, 197 Birgitta, Saint, 76–77 690

Old Crow, 83 INDEX Petrarca, Francesco, 81, 82, 83, 84, 521 in public life, 82 skald, 92–93 in Ravenna, 81 Brailes, William de, 94 reviving classical arts, 83 Teseida delle nozze di Emilia, 80 illuminator, 94 on women, 83 manuscript, 94 Boethius de Dacia, 85–86 Breslau Altarpiece, Pleydenwurff, Hans, 541 Alfred the Great, 28–29 Bretel, Jehan, 4 philosopher, 85–86 Brethren of the Common Life, Radewijns, Florens, 552 theory of knowledge and science, 86 Brethren of the Free Spirit, 633, 634 Bohemond of Taranto, 86–87 Britannici sermonis liber vetustissimus, 657 attacking Byzantium, 87 Brunetto Latini, 94–95 crusades, 86–87 author, 94–95 treaty with Alexius, 87 Book of the Treasure, 94–95 Boleslav Chrobry, Duke, 622 Dante Alighieri, 160, 163, 165 Bolingbroke, Henry, 566 Little Treasure, 94–95 Bonagiunta Orbicciani Degli Averardi, 87–88 public offices, 94 Dante Alighieri, 87–88 translator, 94–95 jurist, 87–88 Bruno of Egisheim. See Leo IX, Pope poet, 87–88 Brut (La3amon), 400 Bonaguisi family, 435 Brut (Layamon), 400 Bonaventura Berlinghieri, 88–89 Buccolicum carmen (Giovanni Boccaccio), 80–81 painter, 88–89 Büchlein der Wahrheit (Little Book of Truth) (Heinrich Seuse), Bonaventure, Saint, 355 Apologia pauperum, 89 598 author, 89–90 Büchlein der ewigen Weisheit (Little Book of Eternal Wisdom) Legenda maior, 625 (Heinrich), 598 Francis of Assisi, Saint, 222–223 Buonaccorsi firm, 647, 648 Franciscan order, 89–90 Buoncompagno da Signa, 96–97 Life of Francis, 89 theologian, 89–90 Ancient Rhetoric, 96 Boniface VIII, Pope, 90–91 author, 96–97 accession to papacy, 90–91 historian, 96–97 asserted supremacy of papal authority, 90 law, 96–97 canon law, 91 Liber de obsidione Ancone, 96 Clement V, Pope, 143 philosophical tracts, 96–97 Colonna family, 91 Rhetorica novissima, 96 invalidating Celestine’s appointments, 91 Burchard of Mount Sion, 97–98 last great monarch-pope, 90 crusades, 98 Patris aeterni, 91 Descriptio Terrae Sanctae, 97 Philip IV the Fair, King of France, 90, 91, 527 Dominican, 97–98 taxation of clergy, 91 pilgrimage, 97–98 Unam sanctam, 91 travel narrative, 97–98 Vilanova, Arnau de, 646 Burgundian state Book of Discussion and Conversation (Moses Ibn Ezra), culture, 531 formation, 529 341 Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, 530 Book of Margery Kempe (Margery Kempe), 391–392 Burhs, 27 Book of the Duchess (Geoffrey Chaucer), 132 Burley, Walter, 45 Book of the Treasure (Brunetto Latini), 94–95 Busnoys, Antoine, 98 Boppe, Meister, 92 composer, 98 poet, 98 composer, 92 service of Burgundian court, 98 poet, 92 Byrhtferth, 98–100 Sangspruchdichtung, 92 computus, 99 Bossu d’Arras. See Adam de la Halle hagiography, 99 Brabantsche yeesten (Brabantine Deeds) (Jan van Boendale), historian, 100 History of the Kings, 100 363 Life of St. Ecgwine, 99 Bragi Boddason, 92–93 Life of St. Oswald, 99 Byzantium poet, 92–93 decline, 608 Ragnarsdrápa, 92–93 Justinian I, Byzantine Emperor, 388–389 Theodora, Empress of Byzantium, 620 691

INDEX Admiración operum Dey, 106–107 Arboleda de los enfermos, 106–107 C author, 106–107 Cabalist, León, Mosés de, 404–405 converso family of Castile, 106 Cædmon, 101 deafness, 106 Franciscan, 106 Cædmon’s Hymn, 101 Santa María-Cartagenas family, 104, 106 first vernacular English poet, 101 Cassian, John, 107 Cædmon’s Hymn (Cædmon), 101 author, 107 Caesarius of Heisterbach, 102 Conferences, 107 author, 102 development of Christian monasticism in southern France, 107 Cistercian, 102 Institutes, 107 Dialogue on Miracles, 102 Cassiodorus, 108 Calendar, Philippe de Thaün, 531 author, 108 Calixtus III, Pope, 23 Expositio Psalmarum, 108 Campin, Robert, 102, 412, 472 historian, 108 Entombment Triptych, 102 Institutes Concerning Divine and Human Readings, 108 Merode Altarpiece, 102 Ostrogoth regime, 108 painter, 102 Castile Cancionero (Juan del Encina), 201–202 Abu¯ Yu¯suf, Mar¯ınid emir of Morocco, 26 Cangrande della Scala, 14, 15, 103 anti-Semitic sentiments, 204 imperial vicariate of Vicenza, 103 expulsion of Jews, 3 ruler of Verona, 103 Portugal sheltered Dante, 103 war against Treviso, 103 disputed territories, 10 Canon of Medicine (Avicenna), 54 Treaty of Badajoz, 10 Canterbury Cathedral, pilgrimage, 59 succession crisis, 508 Canterbury Tales (Geoffrey Chaucer), 133–134 Castruccio Castracani, 648, 649 Canticle of the Creatures (Saint Francis of Assisi), 224 Catalan Canzoniere (Francesco Petrarca), 517, 520, 521, 522 Ibn Adret, Solomon, 339 Cao, Diogo, 104 maritime power, 508 discovered Congo (Zaire) River, 104 Catalano-Aragónese confederation, 553–554 explorer, 104 Caterina de Iacopo di Benincasa. See Catherine of Siena, Saint navigator, 104 Catherine of Siena, Saint, 109, 109–110 Capetian dynasty, 334, 526, 527, 528, 530 asceticism, 109 Capitula (Theodulf of Orléans), 620 author, 109–110 Capitularies, 120, 121 crusade against Turks, 109 Carloman, 118, 119, 126 Dialogue, 110 Carloman I, 511–512 Gregory XI, Pope, 109 Carmina burana (Carl Orff), 44 Italian republics vs. Avignonese papacy, 109 Carmine Altarpiece (Pietro Lorenzetti), 417 Italian vernacular, 110 Carnival play, 219–220 letters, 109–110 Carolingian dynasty, 26–30, 385, 511 Raymond of Capua, 109 Carolingian Latin poetry, 19 Urban VI, Pope, 109 Carolingian minuscule, 19, 121 Catholic Homilies (Ælfric), 7 Carolingian Renaissance, 18–19, 121, 512 Cavalcanti, Guido, 111–112 Dhuoda, 169 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 111 Paul the Deacon, 504–505 Dante Alighieri, 111, 161, 163 Theodulf of Orléans, 620 Donna me prega, 112 Carrara family, 14 Guelfs, 111 “Carta a los estudiosos franceses” (Pedro Alfonso), 506 Guittone D’Arezzo, 285 Carta e prohemio al Condestable de Portugal (Iñigo López de icon of aloof, intellectual urban aristocrat, 111 lyric poetry, 111 Mendoza), 415 political role in Florence, 111 Cartagena, Alfonso de, 104–106 Cavallini, Pietro, 113–114 fresco cycle, 113–114 author, 104–106 mosaicist, 113–114 Bishop of Burgos, 105 painter, 113–114 church and court bureaucracy, 104 Caxton, William, 114–115 Italian humanism, 105 Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, 114 Memoriale uirtutum, 104 choice of texts to print, 114 oratory, 105 theologian, 104–106 vernacular translations, 105 Cartagena, Teresa de, 106–107 692

Chronicles of England, 115 INDEX first printed English book, 114 Governor of the English Nation at Bruges, 114 household, 120 Malory’s Morte Darthur, 114 intellectual culture, 121 merchant, 114–115 invaded Spain, 119–120 moral and religious works published by, 114–115 King of the Lombards, 119 practical works, 115 kingdom inherited, 119 printer, 114–115 nexus between politics and religion, 120–121 prologues and epilogues, 115 Otto III, King of Germany, Emperor, 497 publisher, 114–115 political relationship to pope, 119 Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, 114 promoted Christianity, 121 translator, 114–115 religious reforms, 118, 121 Trevisa’s translation of Higden’s Polychronicon, 115 reputation, 118 Cecco Angiolieri, 115–116 solidifying control, 119 anti-paternal theme, 116 Stephen II, Pope, 118 authenticity of authorship, 115 swearing personal loyalty, 120 comic poet, 115–116 Theodulf of Orléans, 620 gnomic-moralizing tradition, 116 war with Lombards, 119 Goliardic tradition, 115 Charlemagne revival, 610–611 Cecco d’Ascoli, 116–117 Charles d’Orléans, 122–123 Acerba, 117 captured at Battle of Agincourt, 122 astrologer, 116–117 introspective poetry, 122 physician, 116–117 Le temps a laissié son manteau, 123 poet, 116–117 poet, 122–123 Celestine III, Pope, Henry VI, 322 use of allegory, 122 Celestine V, Pope, 91, 117–118 Villon, François, 122, 123 as compromise candidate, 118 Charles II the Bad, King of Navarre, 123–124, 379 founded monasteries, 118 Angoulême, 123 hermit, 117, 118 Charles V the Wise, King of France, 127 miracle worker, 117–118 cooperated with Parisians, 124 renounced papacy, 91, 118 delays in paying wife’s dowry, 123 Celtic monasticism, 65 enemy of Valois, 123 Cenacolo padovano, 14 John II the Good, 123–124 Cenni di Pepe. See Cimabue Marcel, Étienne, 444 Cenobite, 578 negotiations with English, 124 Ceolwulf, 27 Charles III of Durazzo, 375 Challenge of Bordeaux Charles IV, Emperor, 124–126, 447 Charles of Valois, 509 administered Bohemia, 124 Pedro III, King of Aragón, 509 centralized administration, 125 Champagne ruling family, 526 church as political tool, 125 Chanson des Saisnes (Jehan Bodel), 370–371 city league, 125 Charlemagne, 58, 118–121, 119, 504 elected emperor, 124 at Aachen, 120 foreign policy, 124 administrative and political structure, 120 German policy, 125 Alcuin, 18–19, 121 Golden Bull, 125 annexation of Bavaria, 119 Italian policies, 125 aristocratic support, 119 King of Bohemia, 125 biblically based society, 121 maintaining balance of power, 125 biography, 197 Petrarch, 125 capitularies, 120, 121 Prague, 124–125 command and control structure, 119 princely leagues, 125 condemnation of his Germanic warlord lifestyle, 120 religious ideas, 125 conflict in Saxony, 119 returning papacy to Rome, 125–126 conquest of Aquitaine, 118 succession, 125–126 corrupt officials, 120 Swabian city league, 125–126 crowned emperor, 121 treaties and alliances, 124 crushed Avar power, 120 Charles Martel, 126, 512 Einhard, 197 conquest of Provence, 126 expeditions against Lombards, 118 founder of Carolingian dynasty, 126 Hadrian I, Pope, 291–292 halted Muslim advances, 126 ruled Frankish kingdom, 126 ties to papacy, 126 693

INDEX Dante Alighieri, 132 dissemination, 134 Charles of Anjou, 448, 526, 527, 648 first English vernacular textbook, 134 Arnolfo di Cambio, 47–48 French models, 132 Manfred, 440–441 Gower, John, 265, 267 royal commissions, 47–48 Henryson, Robert, 325, 326 Hoccleve, Thomas, 332 Charles of Valois House of Fame, 132 Challenge of Bordeaux, 509 influence, 134 Pedro III, King of Aragón, 509 Legend of Good Women, 133 linguistic and literary background, 131–132 Charles the Bald Ovidian and Italian influences, 132 Eriugena, Johannes Scottus, 206–207 Petrarch, 132 Judith, Empress, 385 Philip the Chancellor, 530 poet, 131–134 Charles the Bold, 530 religious influences, 132 Charles V the Wise, King of France, 124, 127, 277 in royal households, 131 sources, 132–134 attempted confiscation of Brittany, 127 Treatise on the Astrolabe, 134 Charles II the Bad, 127 Troilus and Criseyde, 132–133 Deschamps, Eustache, 168–169 Chemin de long estude (Christine de Pizan), 138 first styled dauphin, 127 Chess, Ludus scaccorum (Jacopo de Cessolis), 356 Great Schism, 127 Chevalier au cygne et Godefroid de Bouillon, 260 Hundred Years’ War, 127 Childeric I, 144 John, Duke of Berry, 381 China, Polo, Marco, 542–543 political career before becoming king, 127 Chiogga war, Amadeo VI, Count of Savoy, 34 regained Paris, 127 Chirino de Guadalajara, Alonso, 643 regent, 127 Chivalric ideal success for France, 127 Henrique, Prince of Portugal, 311 taxes, 127 Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, 530–531 Charles VI, King of France, 128, 349–350 Chrétien de Troyes, 35, 135–138, 570, 571, 677 Charles VII, King of France, 128 chronology of writings, 135 Isabeau of Bavaria, Queen of France, 350 Cligés, 135, 136, 137 John, Duke of Berry, 381–382 Conte du graal (Perceval), 135, 136, 138 mental illness, 128, 350 Erec et Enide, 135, 136, 137–138 Charles VII, King of France, 128–129 Le chevalier de la charrette (Lancelot), 135, 136, 137 administrative decentralization, 129 Marie de Champagne, 135, 137 advisers, 128–129 patrons, 135 assassination of Duke of Burgundy, 128 self-conscious artistry, 136 Charles VI, King of France, 128 sources, 136 Chartier, Alain, 129 troubadour, 135–138 consolidating authority, 129 trouvère, 135–138 government in exile, 128 Christ II (Cynewulf), 154, 155 Jeanne d’Arc, 128–129, 368–369 Christians reconquest of France, 128–129 Jews, tolerance, 204 René d’Anjou, 563 Muslims Chartier, Alain, 129–131 author, 129–131 coexistence, 172–173 Belle dame sans merci, 129, 130 relations in Spain, 208–209 Charles VII, King of France, 129 Christina of Stommeln diplomat, 129–131 letters, 524 ecclesiastical offices, 129 mystic, 524 followed exiled dauphin, 129 Petrus de Dacia, 524 Lay de Plaisance, 130 Christine de Pizan, 138–139 Livre de l’esperance ou Le livre des trois vertus, 130 Épistre Othea, 138–139 poet, 129–131 author, 138–139 Quadrilogue invectif, 130 Chemin de long estude, 138 Chartrians, 69–70 French court, 138 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 131–134, 426 Jeanne d’Arc, 139 Albertanus of Brescia as source, 13 Louis of Orléans, 138–139 amplification and systematization, 426 poet, 138–139 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 132 Book of the Duchess, 132 Canterbury Tales, 133–134 civil service posts, 131 classical influences, 132 694

political activities, 139 INDEX society’s attitudes toward women, 139 Chronica majora (Roger of Wendover), 460 pontificate in France, 143 Chronicle of Genoa (Jacobus da Voragine), 355 relations with empire, 143 Chronicle of the Affairs of Lucca (Giovanni Sercambi), 597 Robert of Anjou, King of Naples, 572 Chronicle (Salimbene de Adam), 589–590 selection as pope, 143 Chronicles of England (William Caxton), 115 Vilanova, Arnau de, 646 Chronicon (Thietmar of Merseburg), 622 Clement VII, Pope, 663 Chronik (Leopold Stainreuter), 607 Clergy king, 124 Chronique des ducs de Normandie (Benoît de Sainte-Maure), Clericis laicos, 190 Cligés (Chrétien de Troyes), 135, 136, 137 67 Clotar I, 145 Chrysoloras, Manuel, 590 Clotar II of Neustria, 511 Church reformer Clovis I, 144–145 administration, 144–145 Arnold of Brescia, 46–47 first Christian king of the Franks, 144 ecclesiastical hierarchy, 46–47 Frankish kingdom, 144–145 wealth of clergy, 46–47 Frankish-Byzantine cooperation, 144 Cnut, Danish and English King, 145–146, 192, 240, 681–682 D’Ailly, Pierre, 158 accession, 145 Damian, Peter, 158–159 administrative structures, 145 Gerhoh of Reichersberg, 247 grip on kingdom, 145 Grosseteste, Robert, 277 strengthened ties to Normandy, 146 Guzmán, Domingo de, 287–288 Codex regularum (Leodegundia), 403 Leo IX, Pope, 402–403 Cœur, Jacques, 146 Nicholas of Cusa, 479–480 financed reconquest of Normandy and Guyenne, 146 Ubertino da Casale, 633–635 merchant, 146 Urban II, Pope, 641 Coinage, 616 Cicero, 96, 432 Frederick II, 234 Ciconia, Johannes, 139–140 Hadrian I, Pope, 292 composer, 139–140 Valois, 146 musician, 139–140 Cola di Rienzo Cimabue, 140–141 Petrarca, Francesco, 520, 521 Giotto di Bondone, 256, 257 Rome, 520, 521 painter, 140–141 Collationes (John Duns Scotus), 185 Cino da Pistoia, 141–142 College of Cardinals, 152, 403 author, 141–142 Colliget (Averroès), 54 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 80, 142 Colonization, Henrique, Prince of Portugal, 312 Dante Alighieri, 141, 142 Colonna family, Boniface VIII, Pope, 91 jurist, 141–142 Columbus, Christopher, 146–148 Lectura in codicem, 141 ancients as sources, 147–148 Petrarca, Francesco, 141, 142 explorer, 146–148 poet, 141–142 geographer, 147 Cino dei Sighibuldi. See Cino da Pistoia incunabula, 147 Cîteaux monastery, 573 literary influence, 146–147 City league, Charles IV, Emperor, 125 schooling, 147 City Patrons’ Altarpiece or Dombild, 412–413 Toscanelli, Paolo dal Pozzo, 628 Civic humanist ideal, 105 Comedy of the Florentine Nymphs (Giovanni Boccaccio), Clare, Saint, 142–143 founder of second order of Franciscans, 142 80–81 Francis of Assisi, Saint, 223 Comic poetry Poor Clares, 142–143 Claros varones de Castilla (Fernando del Pulgar), 643 Cecco Angiolieri, 115–116 Classical Arabic literature, Ibn Zaydun, 345 Immanuel Romano, 346 Clement III, Antipope, 641 Comic style, 367–368, 580 Clement III, Pope, 275 Commentaria in quinque libros decretalium (Pope Innocent Clement V, Pope, 143–144, 634 Boniface VIII, Pope, 143 IV), 349 Constitutiones Clementinae, 143 Commentary on the Dream of Scipio (Macrobius), 431, 432 Council of Vienne, 143 Commynes, Philippe de, 148 Henry VII of Luxembourg, 143 Knights Templar, 143 author, 148 Philip IV the Fair, King of France, 143, 527 early example of memoir-as-history, 148 historian, 148 Louis XI, King of France, 148 Mémoires, 148 695

INDEX Coplas por la muerte de su padre (Jorge Manrique), 441–442 Córdoba, literary culture, 345 Compagni, Dino, 149 Córdoban Martyrs’ Movement Cronica, 149 historian, 149 Alvarus, 33 merchant, 149 Eulogius of Córdoba, 33, 208–209 Coronation Oration (Francesco Petrarca), 520 Compendium historiae in genealogia Christi (Peter of Corpus juris civilis, law, 388, 389 Poitiers), 515 Corsi family, Paschal II, Pope, 504 Cortes of Valladolid, Pedro I the Cruel, King of Castile, 507 Compendium studii theologiae (Roger Bacon), 57 Cortona, Italy, corporate traditions, 446 Computus, Byrhtferth, 99 Cosmati style, 47, 48 Conception Nostre Dame (Wace), 657 Cosmographer, Toscanelli, Paolo dal Pozzo, 627–628 Conciliator of the Differences of the Philosophers and Cosmographia (Bernard Silvestris), 71 Council of Constance, 22 Especially the Physicians (Pietro Abano), 536 Great Schism, 249 Condottiere. See Mercenary soldier Council of Vienne, Clement V, Pope, 143 Conferences (John Cassian), 107 Courtly primer, Thomasîn von Zerclaere, 625 Confessio Amantis (John Gower), 266–267 Coutumes de Beauvaisis (Philippe de Remi, Sire de Confessio (Paulus Alvarus), 33 Confessions (Saint Augustine), 519, 520 Beaumanoir), 59 Confirmation of the Charters, Edward I, King of England, 190 Crónica incompleta (Juan de Flores), 219 Congé (farewell poem) (Adam de la Halle), 4–5 Crestiá (Francesc Eiximenis), 198 Conquête de Constantinople (Geoffroi de Villehardouin), 652 Cronica (Dino Compagni), 148–149 Conrad II, 149–150 Crusades, 360. See also Specific type Crowned Roman Emperor, 149–150 Bernard of Clairvaux, 70 ecclesiastical policy, 150 Blanche of Castile, 421 expedition to Italy, 149–150 Bohemond of Taranto, 86–87 foreign challenges, 150 Burchard of Mount Sion, 98 imperial church, 150 Conrad of Marburg, 150–151 internal rebellions, 150 Council of Clermont, 641–642 royal election, 149 Edward I, King of England, 189 rule consolidated, 149 effect on cultural life, 588 Conrad of Marburg, 150–151 Frederick I Barbarossa, 230 chief inquisitor in Germany, 151 Frederick II, 231–232 crusades, 150–151 Godefroi de Bouillon, 260 Elizabeth of Thuringia, 151 Henry VI, 323 Conrad of Urach, 151–152 Jacques de Vitry, 359 Cistercian, 151 Jaime II, 508–509 Jiménez de Rada, Rodrigo, 371–372 general of Order, 151–152 Louis IX, King of France and Saint, 421 reformer, 151–152 Mézières, Philippe de, 469 rigorous administrator, 151–152 Oliver of Paderborn, 488–489 Conrad von Soest, 152–153 Otto of Freising, 498–499 altarpiece for church of Virgin in Dortmund, 152–153 paradigm, 660 diffusion of International Courtly Style, 152 Paschal II, Pope, 504 Niederwildungen Altarpiece, 152 Pedro III, King of Aragón, 508–509 painter, 152–153 Richard I, King of England, 378 Consolation of Philosophy (Alfred the Great), 28–29, 30 Saladin’s role, 588 Consolation of Philosophy (Boethius), 132 Urban II, Pope, 641–642 Constance, Queen of Sicily, 153–154 Villehardouin, Geoffroi de, 652 diplomatic realignment in Italy, 153–154 Cult of personality, Petrarca, Francesco, 520 expelled German barons, 154 Cumpoz (Philippe de Thaün), 531 issued diplomas in her own name, 153 Cur Deus homo (Anselm of Bec), 38 political activities for son, 154 Curial patrons, Arnolfo di Cambio, 48 ruled kingdom day to day, 153 Cynewulf, 154–156 Constitution of Melfi Christ II, 154, 155 Frederick II, 232, 532 Elene, 154, 155, 156 law, 232 Fates of the Apostles, 154, 155 Constitutional revolution, Pedro III, King of Aragón, 509 identity, 154–155 Constitutiones Clementinae (Pope Clement V), 143 Juliana, 154, 155–156 Consubstantiation, 683 language, 154–155 Conte du Graal (Chrétien de Troyes), 135, 136, 138, 570, 571 Conversos, anti-converso riots of 1449 in Toledo, 106, 107 Convivio (The Banquet) (Dante Alighieri), 162, 163 Coplas de los pecados mortales (Juan de Mena), 468 696

poet, 154–156 INDEX works, 155–156 Czech nation, Wenceslas IV, 664 Purgatorio as canticle of stringent exclusions, 165 Purgatorio has central motif of pilgrimage, 165 D Purgatorio structure, 164 Daddi, Bernardo, 157 recognition, 166 rejection of Virgil, 165 frescoes, 157 spirit of Virgil, 164 Gaddi, Taddeo, 157 study of individual cantos, 164 miniaturist tendency, 157 tragedy of history, 165 painter, 157 triptych controlling central cantos of each canticle, 165 popularization of triptych in Florence, 157 visit to underworld, 164 San Pancrazio Polyptych, 157 in exile, 162–163, 166 workshop, 157 Francesco d’Accorso, 221 D’Ailly, Pierre, 158 Francis of Assisi, Saint, 222 author, 158 funeral, 166 Church reformer, 158 Giotto di Bondone, 255 Dala¯lat al-ba¯’irı¯ın (Guide for the Perplexed) (Maimonides), Giovanni del Virgilio, 257–258 Guinizzelli, Guido, 161, 283 434 Guittone D’Arezzo, 284, 285 Damian, Peter, 158–159 Henry VII, Emperor, 162, 163 Immanuel Romano, 346–347 author, 158–159 incarnationist, 166 Church reformer, 158–159 initiating Renaissance tradition of long poem, 160 diplomatic missions, 158–159 intellectual, 163–164 Liber gratissimus, 159 invented canticle, 164 reform synods, 159 invented canto, 164 writings, 158, 159 involvement in political affairs of commune, 161 Daniel the Abbot, 159–160 member of guild of physicians and apothecaries, 161–162 earliest Russian travel writer, 159 Monarchia (Monarchy), 162, 163 Daniel von dem Blühenden Tal (der Stricker), 610–611 moral philosopher, 162 Dante Alighieri, 95, 117, 118, 160–166, 161, 279, 280, 432, new poetic style, 161 Nicholas III, Pope, 479 649 Petrarca, Francesco, 517, 518, 519 active opponent of intrusions by papacy, 162 philosopher, 163–164 Antonio Pucci, 42 Pier della Vigna, 532 Beatrice, 161 prophecy of entirely new literary culture, 163 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 81, 82–83, 84, 166 public figure, 160 Bonagiunta Orbicciani Degli Averardi, 87–88 Remigio dei Girolami, 561 Brunetto Latini, 160, 163, 165 secular authority’s place, 162–163 Cavalcanti, Guido, 111, 161, 163 secularism vs. theocracy, 162–163 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 132 sheltered in exile by Cangrande della Scala, 103 Cino da Pistoia, 141, 142 transforming epic tradition, 160 Convivio (The Banquet), 162, 163 vernacular enhanced through imitation of ancients, 163 De vulgari eloquentia, 163 Vita nuova (New Life), 161, 163 defense of Italian vernacular, 163 writer, 160–166 Divine Comedy, 160, 162, 163, 164–166 Das fließende Licht der Gottheit (The Flowing Light of the appropriation of Christian salvation, 166 Godhead) (Mechthild von Magdeburg), 463–464 canticle, 164 Das Leben Jesu (Life of Jesus) (Frau Ava), 227 cantos, 164 d’Avanzo, Jacopo, 31, 32 central encounter of each book around father figure, 165 David von Augsburg, 75, 168 disabused of false notions, 164 dominated by spiritual brotherhood, 165 Franciscan, 168 ensemble of cross-references and mutual commentary, preacher, 168 teacher, 168 165 theologian, 168 exile, 165 De amore Dei contra amatores mundi (Richard Rolle of gods that failed, 164 in hell imposing and memorable characters, 164–165 Hampole), 576–577 heroic paideia (ultimate education), 165 De amore (or De arte honeste amandi) (Andreas Capellanus), humankind’s innate purpose to return to God, 166 impending tragedy, 165 35 Inferno structure, 164 De Anima (Averroès), 53 Paradiso structure, 164 De arca mystica (Richard of Saint-Victor), 568 Paradiso transcendent, 165 De arte metrica (Bede the Venerable), 61 697

INDEX Deschamps, Eustache, 168–169 Art de dictier et de fere chançons, 169 De causis et processu universitatis (The Causes and Charles V the Wise, King of France, 168–169 Development of the Universe) (Albertus Magnus), 16 French royal servant, 168–169 Guillaume de Machaut, 169 de’ Cerroni family, 113 poet, 169 De concordia (Anselm of Bec), 38 writer, 169 De concordia catholica (On Catholic Harmony) (Nicholas of Descriptio Terrae Sanctae (Burchard of Mount Sion), 97 Cusa), 480 Desiderius, 608 De docta ignorantia (On Learned Ignorance) (Nicholas of Determinatio compendiosa (Ptolemy of Lucca), 546 Dhuoda, 169–170 Cusa), 480 De dubio accentu (Uguccione da Pisa), 636 administering province, 169 De duodecim patriarchiis (Richard of Saint-Victor), 568 assertions of matriarchal authority, 170 De gratia naturam ditante sive De virtutibus Christinae author, 169–170 Liber manualis, 169–170 Stumbelensis (Petrus de Dacia), 524 only known female author of Carolingian Renaissance, De Imitatione Christi (Thomas à Kempis), 622–623 De institutione clericorum (On the Education of the Clergy) 169–170 Diálogos contra los judíos (Pedro Alfonso), 506 (Hrabanus Maurus), 333 Dialoghi d’amore (León Hebreo), 3–4 De miseria humanae conditionis (On the Misery of the Human Dialogue on Miracles (Caesarius of Heisterbach), 102 Dialogue (Saint Catherine of Siena), 110 Condition) (Pope Innocent III), 347 Dialogue (William of Ockham), 672 De musica (Johannes de Grocheio), 276 Dias, Bartolomeu, 170 De natura rerum (Bede the Venerable), 61 De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii (Martianus Capella), 453–454 discovered southernmost tip of Africa, 170 De orthographia (Bede the Venerable), 61 navigator, 170 De planctu Naturae (Alain de Lille), 12 Díaz de Games, Gutierre, 170–171 De processione Spiritus Sanctus (Anselm of Bec), 38 author, 170–171 De proprietatibus rerum (Bartholomaeus Anglicus), 630 El Victorial, 170–171 De regimine principum (Giles of Rome), 254–255 historian, 170–171 De remediis utriusque fortune (Francesco Petrarca), 521 scenes of chivalric life, 171 De temporum ratione (Bede the Venerable), 61 Díaz de Vivar, Rodrigo, 24, 172–173 De virginitate (Alcuin), 21 Almoravid invasion, 172–173 De viris illustribus (Francesco Petrarca), 520, 522 consolidate alliances, 173 De vita et moribus domini Francisci Petracchi (Giovanni courtly career, 172 exile, 172 Boccaccio), 81 fidelity to Alfonso VI, 172 De vita solitaria (Francesco Petrarca), 520, 521, 522 military services, 172 De vita sua sive monodiarum suarum libri tres (Guibert de Muslims, regime of coexistence, 172–173 Didactic lyrical poet, Boppe, Meister, 92 Nogent), 278 Didot Perceval, 570–571 Death, 111, 654 Diet of Worms, 275 Decameron (Giovanni Boccaccio), 79, 82, 111 Digulleville, Guillaume de, 173 Decretales (Ramón de Peñafort), 511 Cistercian, 173 Decretum (Gratian), 269 Pilgrimage of Life theme, 173 Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa (Otto of Freising), 499 poet, 173 Defensor minor (Marsilio of Padua), 452 Dinis, King of Portugal, 173–175 Defensor pads (The Defender of Peace) (Marsilio of Padua), agricultural reforms, 174 boundaries with Castile, 173 452, 453 clericomilitary orders, 174 Denmark economic foundations, 174 royal authority, 175 Alfred the Great, 27 territorial expansion, 173–174 Cnut, Danish and English King, 145 Dino del Garbo, 116–117 Margrethe I, Queen of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, Dirc van Delf, 173–174 author, 173–174 447–448 Dutch religious texts, 173–174 national history in Latin, 593 Handbook of the Christian Faith, 173–174 overlordship of Norway, 616 Disciplina clericalis (Pedro Alfonso), 506 Saxo Grammaticus, 593–594 Distinctiones super psalterium (Peter of Poitiers), 515 Sunesen, Anders, 614–615 Dit de l’ alerion (Guillaume de Machaut), 430 Sven Haraldsson (Forkbeard), King of Denmark, 615–616 union, 447 Der leken spiegel (The Layman’s Mirror) (Jan van Boendale), 363 Der Renner (Hugo von Trimberg), 336 Der Welsche Gast (The Italian Visitor) (Thomasîn von Zerclaere), 625–626 Der Welt Lohn (Konrad von Würzburg), 674 Derivationes (Uguccione da Pisa), 636 698

Dit du lyon (Guillaume de Machaut), 430 INDEX Diu Crûne (The Crown) (Heinrich von dem Türlin), 306 Divine Comedy (Dante Alighieri), 160, 162, 163, 164–166, Rucellai Madonna and Child Enthroned, 180 Sienese painting, 179 213–214 work attributed, 181 appropriation of Christian salvation, 166 Duchy of Athens, 362 canticle, 164 Duelo que fizo la Virgen (Gonzalo de Berceo), 68 cantos, 164 Dufay, Guillaume, 182–183 central encounter of each book around father figure, 165 cleric, 182–183 disabused of false notions, 164 composer, 182–183 dominated by spiritual brotherhood, 165 Gilles Binchois, 182, 183 ensemble of cross-references and mutual commentary, 165 musician, 182–183 exile, 165 Duke of Braganza, 3 gods that failed, 164 Dunbar, William, 183–184 in hell imposing and memorable characters, 164–165 comedy, 184 heroic paideia (ultimate education), 165 court career, 183–184 humankind’s innate purpose to return to God, 166 poet, 183–184 impending tragedy, 165 Duns Scotus, John, 185 Inferno structure, 164 Albert the Great, 185 network of cross references, 164 Collationes, 185 Paradiso structure, 164 Franciscan, 185 Paradiso transcendent, 165 Opus Oxoniense, 185 Purgatorio as canticle of stringent exclusions, 165 Opus Parisiense, 185 Purgatorio has central motif of pilgrimage, 165 philosopher, 185 Purgatorio structure, 164 theologian, 185 recognition, 166 Tractatus de Primo Principio, 185 rejection of Virgil, 165 Dunstable, John, 186–187, 544 spirit of Virgil, 164 astronomer, 186–187 study of individual cantos, 164 author, 186–187 tragedy of history, 165 composer, 186–187 triptych controlling central cantos of each canticle, 165 courtier, 186 visit to underworld, 164 mathematician, 186–187 D¯ıwa¯n (Ibn Zaydu¯n), 345 Dunstan of Canterbury, 6, 9, 187 Doctor universalis. See Alain de Lille revival of English monasticism, 187 Dolcino, Fra, 176 Dürer, Albrecht, 680, 681 Apostolic Brotherhood, 176 heretic, 176 E Domingo de Guzmàn. See Dominic, Saint Ebner, Christina, 399 Dominic, Saint, 176–178 artistic portrayals, 178 mystic, 125 founder of Dominican order, 176 Ebner, Margaretha, 189 preacher, 176–178 Donation of Constantine, 275, 403 author, 189 Donation of Ireland, Hadrian IV, Pope, 293 Dominican, 189 Donation of Pepin music, 189 papacy, 512 Offenbarungen (Revelations), 189 Stephen II, Pope, 608 religious, 189 Donna me prega (Guido Cavalcanti), 112 Ecclesiastical court system, 641 Douglas, Gavin, 178–179 Ecclesiastical History (Bede), 101, 329 churchman, 178–179 Ecclesiastical History of the English People (Bede the courtier, 178–179 Eneados, 178–179 Venerable), 60–61, 62, 63 Palice of Honour, 178–179 Ecerinis (The Tragedy of Ecerinus) (Albertino Mussato), 14–15 poet, 178–179 Edgar, King, 9 Dreux family, 534 Edward, the Black prince, 191, 507 Duccio di Buoninsegna, 179–181, 454 Edward I, King of England, 189–190 commune of Siena employed, 179 followers, 181 administration, 190 Maestà, 180–181 baronial reform movement, 190 offenses against commune, 179–180 Confirmation of the Charters, 190 painter, 179–181 crusades, 189 development of parliament, 189, 190 Francesco d’Accorso, 220–221 legal system reform, 189–190 taxation, 190 against Welsh and against Scotland, 189, 190 699

INDEX power over her children, 199 as regent for Richard and John, 199 Edward III, King of England, 191–192 role of noblewomen, 199 Commons complained about taxation and purveyance, 191 Elegy of Lady Fiammetta (Giovanni Boccaccio), 81 disputed inheritance of Brittany, 191 Elene (Cynewulf), 154, 155, 156 founded Order of the Garter, 191 Elfarvísur (Einarr Skúlason), 197 maintaining domestic harmony, 191 Elias of Cortona, 589 military success against Scotland and France, 191 Eliduc (Marie de France), 244 Philip VI, King of France, 528 Elipandus metropolitan of Toledo, 58 statute limiting his power, 191 Elisabeth von Schönau, 199–200 author, 199–200 Edward IV, King of England, Richard III, King of England, 567 Benedictine, 199–200 Edward the Confessor, King of England, 192–193, 670 clerical criticism, 200 Liber revelationum de sacro exercitu virginum accession, 192 empty promises of succession, 192 Coloniensium, 200 Godwin, Earl of Wessex, 192–193 Liber viarum dei (Book of the Ways of God), 200 Harold Godwinson, King of England, 298–299 Liber visionum, 200 William as heir, 670 mystic, 199–200 Egeria, 193–194 Elizabeth of Hungary, Saint, 200–201, 201 first travel book, 193 canonization, 200 in Holy Land, 193 Franciscan, 200 from Iberian Peninsula, 193 generosity, 200 Peregrinatio, 193 medicine, 200–201 religious, 193–194 nursing, 200–201 Ehrenreden, Suchenwirt, Peter, 613 works of art commemorating, 200–201, 201 Eike von Repgow, 194 Emendatio vitae (Richard Rolle of Hampole), 577 author, 194 Encina, Juan del, 201–202 law, 194 Cancionero, 201–202 Sachsenspiegel (Saxon Mirror), 194 musician, 201–202 Eilhart von Oberg, 194–195 ordained priest, 202 poet, 194–195 playwright, 201–202 Tristrant, 194–195 Encyclopedist, Bersuire, Pierre, 74–75 Einarr Helgason skálaglamm, 195–196 Eneados (Gavin Douglas), 178–179 poet, 195–196 Eneasroman (The Story of Aeneas) (Heinrich von Veldeke), skald, 195–196 Vellekla, 195–196 309–310 Einarr Skúlason, 196–197 Engelbert of Berg, 202–203 clerical education, 196–197 Elfarvísur, 197 assassination, 203 Geisli, 197 ecclesiastical regime, 202–203 skald, 196–197 political activities, 202–203 Einhard, 197 regent for Henry VII, Emperor, 202–203 author, 197 England biographer, 197 history, 60–61, 62 Charlemagne, 197 loss of territory, 526 scholar, 197 English language, 6, 7 Vita Caroli, 197 Chaucer’s time, 131 Eiximenis, Francesc, 198, 217 literary forms, 131 author, 198 London dialect, 131 Catalan religious writer, 198 Enrique II, King of Castile, 203–204, 507 Crestiá, 198 alliance between Castile and France, 204 Franciscan, 198 conflict with Navarre, 204 El Cid. See Díaz de Vivar, Rodrigo estate administration, 204 El laberinto de Fortuna (Juan de Mena), 467–468, 469 generosity, 204 El Victorial (Gutierre Díaz de Games), 170–171 Hundred Years’ War, 204 Eleanor of Aquitaine, 35, 198–199, 199, 657, 658 opposed stepbrother, Pedro I of Castile, 203–204 Angevin Empire, 199 parliament, 204 childbearing, 199 strengthened crown’s power, 204 cultural influence, 199 Enrique IV, King of Castile, 643 governed Poitou, 199 Entombment Triptych (Robert Campin), 102 Henry II, 198–199, 315 Epistle to Rabbi Judah ben Barzillai (Abraham bar H. iyya), 3 imprisonment, 199 Épistre Othea (Christine de Pizan), 138–139 Louis VII, King of France, 198–199 700

Epitome of Astrology (John of Seville), 380–381 INDEX Equestrian Portrait of Guidoriccio da Fogliano (Simone Fall of Princes (John Lydgate), 426 Martini), 455 Fates of Illustrious Men (Giovanni Boccaccio), 83 Eracle (Gautier d’Arras), 243–244 Fates of the Apostles (Cynewulf), 154, 155 Erec et Enide (Chrétien de Troyes), 135, 136, 137–138 Fatimid dynasty, 588 Eremitism, 158, 578 Fazio degli Uberti, 213–214 Erhart, Michel, 205 Il dittamondo, 213 master in Ulm, 205 poet, 213–214 sculptor, 205 political and cultural ideals, 213 Erik, Saint, 205–206 Feast of Immaculate Conception, 657 King of Sweden, 205 Félix o El libre de meravelles (Felix, or the Book of Wonders) law, 205–206 symbol of Church in Sweden, 205 (Ramón Llull), 410, 411–412 Erik of Pomerania, 447 Fernando, King of Aragón, 22 Eriugena, Johannes Scottus, 206–207 Fernando de Bulhoes. See Anthony of Padua, Saint Charles the Bald, 206–207 Fernando I, King of León, 214–215 Periphyseon (On the Division of Nature), 207 scholar, 206–207 accession, 214 translator, 206–207 campaigns against the Muslim ta¯’ifa kingdoms, 214–215 Espurgatoire saint Patrice (Marie de France), 449, 451 reform of Church, 214–215 Estonia, 614 ta¯’ifa of Toledo, 215 Ethics, Abélard, Peter, 2 ta¯’ifa of Zaragoza, 215 Etymologiae (Saint Isidore of Seville), 351 Fernando III, King of Castile, 215–217 Eugenius III, Pope, 254 accession, 215 Arnold of Brescia, 46–47 conquest of Córdoba, 216 Roman republic, 47 development of institutions and culture, 217 Eugenius of Palermo, 207–208 eradicating Muslim rule in Spain, 215–217 east-west cultural transmission in Sicily, 207–208 Jiménez de Rada, Rodrigo, 371–372 poet, 207–208 León and Castile reunited, 216 translator, 207–208 Reconquest, 215–216 Eulogius of Córdoba, 208–209 Seville, 216 Alvarus, Paulus, 33 Ferrer, Vicente, Saint, 217–218 Córdoban Martyrs’ Movement, 33, 208–209 missionary, 217 Islam, 208–209 Papal Schism, 217–218 Memoriale sanctorum, 208 preacher, 217–218 Eulogy (Pier della Vigna), 532 scholar, 217–218 Évreux family, 123–124 Flaccus. See Alcuin Exile, Dante Alighieri, 162–163, 166 Florence, Italy, 91 Explorer alliance among Guelf party, papacy, and France, 162 Cao, Diogo, 104 Arnolfo di Cambio, 47–48 Columbus, Christopher, 146–148 banking, 647 Dias, Bartolomeu, 170 Black Death, 82 Gama, Vasco da, 243 Black vs. White Guelfs, 149 Henrique, Prince of Portugal, 311–312 center of humanistic studies, 590–591 Expositio de symbolo apostolorum (Uguccione da Pisa), 637 Compagni, Dino, 148–149 Expositio Psalmarum (Cassiodorus), 108 Dante Alighieri, 160–162 Eyvindr Finnsson skáldaspillir, 209–211 development, 648–649 Hákonarmál, 209–210 factionalism, 648, 649 Háleygjatal, 209, 210 founding, 435 lausavísur, 209, 210–211 Gaddi, Taddeo, 241–242 poet, 208–210 Giotto di Bondone, 255–257 skald, 208–210 Guzmán, Nuño de, 288–289 Ezzo, 211–212 Hawkwood, Sir John, 303–304 composer, 211–212 Henry VII of Luxembourg, Emperor, 324 Ezzolied (Ezzo’s Song) (Ezzo), 211–212 Maimonides, 435 Ezzonid family, 37 mercantile companies, 647 Nardo di Cione, 475–476 F physical development, 648–649 Fables (Marie de France), 449, 451 Pisano, Andrea, 536 Fables (Robert Henryson), 325, 326 in poems of Antonio Pucci, 42 political life, 148–149 relations with Church, 648 Remigio dei Girolami, 561–562 701

INDEX Frankish kingdom beginning of feudal institutions, 126 Florence, Italy (continued) Charles Martel, 126 Romans vs. Fiesolans, 649 Clovis I, 144–145 Salutati, Coluccio, 590–591 statistics, 647–648 Frau Ava, 226–227 struggle with Visconti, 590 Das Leben Jesu (Life of Jesus), 227 tratte, 590 earliest German woman author, 227 Villani, Giovanni, 647–649 poet, 226–227 war with papacy, 590 Frauenbuch (Ulrich von Liechtenstein), 640 Flores, Juan de, 217–218 Frauendienst (Service of Ladies) (Ulrich von Liechtenstein), author, 218–219 courtier, 218–219 639–640 Crónica incompleta, 219 Frauenlob, 228 Grimalte, 218 Grisel y Mirabella, 218 poet, 228 historian, 218–219 Sangspruchdichtung, 228 official chronicler to Fernando and Isabel, 218 Frederick I Barbarossa, 44, 229–230 Triunfo, 218 Arnold of Brescia, 47 crusades, 230 Flores chronicorum (Bernard Gui), 69 Friedrich von Hausen, 235 Folz, Hans, 219–220 Hadrian IV, Pope, 229, 230, 293 Henry the Lion, 320–321 master craftsman, 219–220 Henry VI, 323 Meistersinger, 219–220 invasions of Italy, 229 playwright, 219–220 Lombard League, 229 Fontana Maggiore in Perugia, Pisano, Nicola, 540–541 Rainald of Dassel, 552–553 Form of Living (Richard Rolle of Hampole), 577 Fouquet, Jean, 220, 221 antipope Victor IV, 552 painter, 220, 221 empire derived from election by the princes and God, Fourth Lateran Council, 348 Framing tale, Boccaccio, Giovanni, 82 552 Francesco d’Accorso, 220–221 establishing German imperial hegemony, 552 Dante Alighieri, 221 Hohenstaufen agenda of rejecting papal claims to Edward I, King of England, 220–221 law, 220–221 primacy, 552 Francesco di Pietro di Bernardone. See Francis of Assisi, Saint imperial chancellor, 552 Francesco Stabili. See Cecco d’Ascoli programmatic sacralization of Barbarossa’s imperial rule, Francis of Assisi, Saint, 142, 222–225, 624–625 and animals, 224 553 Anthony of Padua, Saint, 40–41 relations with papacy, 229–230 artists glorifying, 222 relations with princes in Germany, 229–230 Bonaventure, Saint, 222–223 Roman republic, 47 brought peace in several divided cities, 224 Roncaglia decrees, 230 Canticle of the Creatures, 224 taking authority in Italy, 229–230 Clare, Saint, 223 Frederick II, 153, 154, 231–234 conversion, 222–223 accession, 231 Dante Alighieri, 222 campaign against Lombards, 232 family conflict, 222 child-king, 231 founded Franciscan order, 223 coinage, 234 influence, 222 Constitution of Melfi, 232, 532 Innocent III, Pope, 223–224 crusades, 231–232 love of creation, 224 Gregory IX, Pope, 232–233, 532 missionary, 225 Honorius III, Pope, 231–232 at Portiuncula, 223 Innocent III, Pope, 347–348 poverty, 223 Innocent IV, Pope, 233, 349, 532 preacher, 223–225 invasion of papal territories, 233 stigmata, 223, 225 King of Jerusalem, 232 writings, 225 King of Sicily, 231 youth, 222 law, 232 Francke, Master, 226 Lombard League, 232 painter, 226 Otto IV, Emperor, 497–498 Franco of Cologne, 444–445 Pier della Vigna Franco-Germany, Spain, cultural integration, 50–51 Frederick II turns against, 532 polemical campaign in defense of, 532 portraits, 532 senior bureaucrat and officer of state, 532 702

Pope Innocent III as guardian, 231 INDEX revolts in Italy, 233 Roman Emperor, 231 Gautier de Coinci, 244–245 scientific author, 234 author, 244–245 Sicilian court culture, 234 Benedictine, 244–245 son Henry, 231, 232 Miracles de Nostre Dame, 244–245 strong political position, 231 suppressed Muslim revolt in Sicily, 231 Gautier de Montbéliard, 570 trouble in Germany, 232 Gedichte (Michael Beheim), 64 union of imperial and Sicilian crowns, 231 Geisli (Einarr Skúlason), 197 Frederick III, Emperor, 234–235 Gelmírez, Diego, Archbishop of Compostela, 245–246 accession, 234 dynastic quarrels, 235 Alfonso VII, 245–246 Hungarian forces out of Austria, 235 great magnate of Galicia, 246 papal-imperial relations, 234–235 political figure, 245–246 power of cities and princes, 234 royal administrator, 245–246 rivals, 235 Genealogy of the Pagan Gods (Giovanni Boccaccio), 80, 83 Frederick of Sicily, 572 Geoffrey of Monmouth, 246–247 Frederigo III of Sicily, 646 author, 246–247 Fresco of Maestá (Simone Martini), 454 Historia regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain), Friedrich von Hausen, 235–236 Frederick I Barbarossa, 235 246–247 minnesinger, 235–236 historian, 246–247 Froissart, Jean, 236–238 Prophecies of Merlin, 246 courtier, 236–238 Geoffrey Plantagenet, Matilda, Empress, 458 greatest French chronicler, 236–238 Georgius Florentius. See Gregory of Tours historian, 236–238 Gerard Zerbolt of Zutphen, 552 Les chroniques de France, d’Angleterre et de pas voisins, Gerhoh of Reichersberg, 247 author, 247 236–237 Church reformer, 247 poet, 236–238 theologian, 247 Frueauf, Rueland, the Elder, 239 Gershom b. Judah, 248 innovative style, 239 founding father of rabbinic studies in northern Europe, 248 painter, 239 law, 248 Fuero Real (Alfonso X, El Sabio, King of Castile and León), talmudic commentary, 248 taqqanot (ordinances), 248 26 Gerson, Jean, 248–249 Fugger banking family, 461 author, 248–249 Fulbert of Chartres, 240 Great Schism, 249 political activities, 249 Bishop of Chartres, 240 theologian, 248–249 Robert II the Pious, King of France, 240 Gersonides. See Levi ben Gershom Gerthener, Madern, 249–251 G architect, 249–251 Gace Brulé, 621 sculptor, 250 Gaddi, Taddeo, 241–242 stone mason of Frankfurt, 249–251 Gerturd von Helfta, 250–251 architect, 242 author, 250–251 Daddi, Bernardo, 157 mystic, 250–251 fresco cycle, 241–242 Gesta Danorum (Saxo Grammaticus), 593–594 Giotto di Bondone, 241 Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae Pontificum (History of leading painter of Florentine school, 241 Galen, 54, 536, 647 the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen) (Adam of Gama, Vasco da, 243 Bremen), 5 explorer, 243 Ghent Altarpiece (Jan van Eyck), 644 India, 243 Ghibellines, 94, 103, 111, 141, 160, 162, 213, 214, 220, 221, trade, 243 282, 284, 440, 648 García Sanchez, Count of Castile, 591 Henry VII of Luxembourg, Emperor, 324 Gaston V of Béarn, 553 Tuscany, 324 Gautier d’Arras, 243–244 Giacomino de Verona, 251–253 Eracle, 243–244 poet, 251–253 Ille et Galeron, 243, 244 Giacomo da Lentini, 252–253 poet, 243–244 inventor of sonnet form, 253 rival of Chrétien de Troyes, 243 poet, 252–253 Giacomo da Milano. See Jacopo da Milano Giacopone de’ Benedetti. See Jacopone da Todi 703

INDEX greatest poet of German Middle Ages, 261 Tristan, 261–263 Giannozzo Manetti, Guzmán, Nuño de, 288 Gottschalk, 264 Gilbert of Poitiers, 39, 254 poet, 264 theologian, 264 Bernard of Clairvaux, 70 Gower, John, 134, 265–267 theologian, 254 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 265, 267 Giles of Rome, 254–255 Confessio Amantis, 266–267 Aquinas, Thomas, 254, 255 English works, 266–267 Augustinians, 255 French works, 265–266 De regimine principum, 254–255 Latin works, 266 educator, 254–255 Mirour de l’Omme, 265 philosopher, 254–255 monastery of St. Mary Overeys, 265 Gilles Binchois, Dufay, Guillaume, 182, 183 “To King Henry IV, In Praise of Peace,” 267 Gillibertus Porreta or Porretanus. See Gilbert of Poitiers Vox Clamantis, 266 Giotto di Bondone, 32, 113, 114, 255–257, 535, 536 Grail, 135, 138, 677, 678 Antonio Pucci, 42 Gramática de la lengua castellana (Elio Antonio de Nebrija), Arena Chapel in Padua, 255 Bardi Chapel, 255–256 477 Cimabue, 256, 257 Grammaticus. See Ælfric Dante Alighieri, 255 Grasser, Erasmus, 268 frescoes, 32, 255–256 Gaddi, Taddeo, 241 master builder, 268 influence, 257 sculptor, 268 Madonna and Child Enthroned, 256 Gratian, 269–270 from medieval stylization to Renaissance naturalism, 255 author, 269–270 narrative drama, 256 Decretum, 269 painter, 255–257 law, 269–270 Peruzzi Chapel, 256 Roman law, 269–270 sources, 256–257 Great Mosque of Córdoba, 443 travels, 256 Great Schism, 34, 109, 126, 158, 321, 403, 663 workshop, 256 Charles V the Wise, King of France, 127 Giovanni Acuto. See Hawkwood, Sir John Council of Constance, 249 Giovanni Colonna, Cardinal, Petrarca, Francesco, 519–520 Gerson, Jean, 249 Giovanni del Virgilio, 257–258 Greban, Arnoul, 270 author, 257–258 Mystère de la Passion, 270 Dante Alighieri, 257–258 playwright, 270 Giovanni di Piano Carpini, 259, 543 Green Count. See Amadeo VI, Count of Savoy Franciscan, 259 Gregorian chant, 270 historian, 259 Gregorian reform, 274 Historic Mongolorum (Mongol History), 259 Gregorius (Hartmann von Aue), 300, 301–302 Giovanni Gaetano Orsini. See Nicholas III, Pope Gregory I, Pope, 270–272 Giusto de’ Menabuoi, 259–260 adviser to Pope Pelagius II, 271 painter, 259–260 Augustine of Canterbury, 51–52 Glossa ordinaria (Anselm of Laon), 39 command of Roman military matters, 271 Gnomic-moralizing tradition, 116 connections with Franks, 272 Godefroi de Bouillon, 260 to court of Byzantium, 271 crusades, 260 defined medieval papacy, 270 first Latin ruler of Jerusalem, 260 early life, 270 Godefroi de Leigni, 135 extended power of Roman see over all others, 271–272 Godernan, scribe, 9 financial manager, 271 Godfrey of Fontaines, 449 influence on modern Catholicism, 270 Godfrey of Viterbo, 260–261 liturgical and musical developments, 270, 272 historian, 260–261 missionary effort to Angles, 272 Pantheon, 261 monastic life of, 271 poet, 260–261 Morals, 271 Godwin, Earl of Wessex, Edward the Confessor, King of pontificate, 271–272 reforms of Roman liturgy, 271 England, 192–193 relations with imperial government, 272 Golden Bull, Charles IV, Emperor, 125 relations with Lombards, 272 Golden Bull of Rimini, 232 Gregory VII, Pope, 273–275, 572, 641 Goliardic tradition, 115 deposed, 275 González de Mendoza, Cardinal Pedro, 3 Gottfried von Strassburg, 261–263 704

election by the people, 274 INDEX France, appointment of bishops, 275 Germany, appointment of bishops, 275 poet, 281–282 Gregorian reform, 274 Roman de la Rose, 281–282 Henry IV, Emperor, 275, 319–320 Guillaume de Machaut, Deschamps, Eustache, 169 Guillaume Durand. See William Durandus excommunication and deposition, 275 Guillelmus Duranti. See William Durandus investiture controversy, 273 Guinizzelli, Guido, 111, 282–283 papal reform, 641 Dante Alighieri, 161, 283 pontificate, 274–275 dolce stil nuovo, 282 register, 274 poet, 282–283 renunciation of obedience to, 275 Guittone d’Arezzo, 87–88, 111, 284–285 Rudolf of Swabia, 275 Cavalcanti, Guido, 285 Spain, 274–275 challenging literary convention, 284–285 territorial claims, 274–275 Dante Alighieri, 284, 285 Gregory IX, Pope Knights of Saint Mary, 284 Franciscan order, 224–225 literary culture in Tuscany and Emilia, 284–285 Frederick II, 232–233, 532 literary model for 13th century Tuscan poets, 284 Gregory of Tours, 145, 273 moralist, 285 author, 273 in municipal politics, 284 against Frankish kings, 273 poetics of formal obscurity, 285 historian, 273 rhetorical artifice, 285 Histories, 273 Gutenberg, Johann, 286, 286–287 Gregory XI, Pope, Catherine of Siena, Saint, 109 Helmasperger Instrument, 287 Grimalte (Juan de Flores), 218 invention of printing with movable metal type, 286 Grisel y Mirabella (Juan de Flores), 218 role in development of printing, 286–287 Grocheio, Johannes de, 276 Gutenberg Bible, 286, 287 De musica, 276 Guthrum, 27 music theorist, 276 Guzmán, Domingo de, 287–288 Grosseteste, Robert, 276–277 Church reform, 287–288 Church reform, 277 founder of Dominican order, 288 natural sciences, 276–277 preacher, 287–288 scholar, 276–277 Guzmán, Nuño de, 288–289 theologian, 276–277 commissioned translations, 289 Guelfs, 94, 111, 115, 143, 149, 160, 162, 220, 284, 324, 347, early Spanish humanism, 288–289 Giannozzo Manetti, 288 440, 648. See also Black Guelfs; White Guelfs pilgrimage, 288 Henry VII of Luxembourg, Emperor, 324 Robert of Anjou, King of Naples, 572 H Tuscany, 324 Habsburg dynasty, 234–235 Guesclin, Bertrand du, 127, 277 Constable of France, 277 Valois dynasty, rivalry between, 461 military career, 277 Hadewijch, 291 routiers, 277 Guibert de Nogent, 278 mystic, 58, 291 autobiography, 278 vernacular Middle Dutch, 291 Benedictine, 278 Hadrian I, Pope, 291–292 De vita sua sive monodiarum suarum libri tres, 278 building program, 292 Guibert of Gembloux, 330 Charlemagne, 291–292 Guide for the Perplexed (Maimonides), 627 coinage, 292 Guido D’Arezzo, 278–279 emancipation of papacy from Byzantine authority, 291, 292 innovator, 278–279 Lombards ceded territory to papacy, 291 Micrologus, 278 Nicaean canons, 292 music theorist, 278–279 openness to Byzantium, 292 staff in music notation, 278 writings, 292 Guido delle Colonne, 279–280 Hadrian IV, Pope, 292–293 poems, 279–280 “apostle of the north,” 293 Guidonian hand, 279 Arnold of Brescia, 47 Guilhem IX (William IX), 280–281 Donation of Ireland, 293 first troubadour, 280 Frederick I Barbarossa, 229, 230, 293 poems, 280–281 political intrigue and conflict, 293 Guillaume de Lorris, 281–282 Roman republic, 47 Scandinavia, 292–293 William I of Sicily, 293 705

INDEX Heinric, 304–305 Of King Saladijn and of Tabaryen, 304 H. afs.a bint al-Hayy Ar-Rakuniyya, 293–294 poet, 304–305 poet, 293–294 Heinrich der Glîchezâre, 305–306 Hákon góði (“The Good”) Haraldsson, 294 author, 305–306 attempts to introduce Christianity into Norway, 294 Reinhart Fuchs (Reynard the Fox), 305 law, 294 organizer of military defense, 294 Heinrich von dem Türlin, 306 author, 306 Hákon Hákonarson, King of Norway, 295, 611–612 Diu Crûne (The Crown), 306 collaboration with Church, 295 European chivalric literature, 295 Heinrich von Melk, 306–307 Ribbungar from Viken, 295 poet, 306–307 Vom Priesterleben (On the Life of Priests), 306–307 Hákonarmál (Eyvindr Finnsson skáldaspillir), 209–210 Von des todes gehugde (On the Remembrance of Death), Hákon, King of Norway, 447 306–307 Halakhic issues, 50–51 Halevi, Samuel, 507 Heinrich von Morungen, 307–308 Háleyg (Eyvindr Finnsson skáldaspillir), 209, 210 minnesinger, 307–308 Ha-Nasi. See Abraham bar H. iyya motifs, 308 Handbook of the Christian Faith (Dirc van Delf), 173–174 use of images and symbols, 308 Hanseatic League, 153 Haraldr hárfagri (“Fair-Hair”) Hálfdanarson, 297–298 Heinrich von Veldeke, 309–310 Eneasroman (The Story of Aeneas), 309–310 unification of Norway, 297 original language, 309 Haraldr harðráði (“Hard Ruler”) Sigurðarson, 296–297 poet, 309–310 Servatius, 310 claim to English throne, 296 Harold Godwinson, King of England, 296, 298 Helfta monastery, 250 Haraldsdrápa (Arnórr Þórðarson jarlaskáld), 49 mysticism, 250 Harold Godwinson, King of England, 192–193, 298 Edward the Confessor, 298–299 Hellenic studies, rebirth, 590–591 Haraldr Harðráði (“Hard Ruler”) Sigurðarson, 296, 298 Helmbrecht (Werner der Gärtner), 665 William the Conqueror, 298 Héloïse, 310 Harold I, King of England, 670 Harpestreng, Henrik, 299 Abélard, Peter, 1, 310 author, 299 burial, 2 medicine, 299 correspondence, 1, 2 Urtebogen, 299 Hartmann von Aue, 300–302 monastery of the Paraclete, 310 author, 300–302 Henrique, Prince of Portugal, 311–312 chronology of writings, 300 Gregorius, 300, 301–302 African exploration, 312 patron, 300 chivalric ideal, 311 poet, 300–302 colonization, 312 Poor Heinrich, 300, 302 explorer, 311–312 Húsdrápa (“House-lay”) (Ulfr Uggason), 637–638 Joao I, King of Portugal, 311 Hawkwood, Sir John, 34, 35, 303–304 maritime activities, 311–312 elected captain general of White Company, 303 against Muslims of Ceuta, 311 Florence, 303–304 navigator, 311–312 Gregorius XI, Pope, 303–304 quest for patronage, 311 joined antipapal league, 304 as slaver, 311, 312 mercenary soldier, 303–304 Henry I, King of England, 312–313 Uccello, Paolo, 304 accession, 312 Visconti family, 303 Anselm of Bec H. ayya. See Abraham bar H. iyya Hebreo, León, Dialoghi d’amore, 3–4 disputes over homage and investiture, 38 Hebrew Bible, Andrew of Saint-Victor, 35–36 exile by, 38 Hegyon ha-nefesh ha-’asubah (The Meditation of the Sad development of institutions of government, 313 investiture, 313 Soul) (Abraham bar H. iyya), 3 law, 313 Heiligenleben (Hermann von Fritzlar), 327 Norman insurrection, 313 Heilsspiegel Altar, 676 overlordship in Maine and Brittany, 312–313 Heimelijkheid der Heimelijkheden (Mirror of Princes) peace and prosperity, 313 possession of Normandy, 312–313 (Jacob van Maerlant), 353–354 succession, 313 Heimskringla (Snorri Sturluson), 296, 297–298, 605 Henry I of Saxony, 313–314 Hein van Aken. See Heinric action against Magyars, 314 Bavaria, 314 706 Charles the Simple, 314