Key Figures in Medieval Europe - An Encyclopedia

["Gehugde, as well as the closely related subject matter, HEINRICH VON MORUNGEN suggest that the two poems were written by the same individual, the matter of common authorship continues sion in the secular tales of the courtly period, in which to be the subject of lively speculation. society is improved by the actions of members of the nobility and not by representatives of the institutional- At the end of Von des Todes gehugde, in the midst ized Church. The path to salvation begins to lead not of a description of Paradise, the following verses ap- solely through priests, but, primarily, through the good pear: \u201cLord God, bring to that place [i.e. Paradise] for works of each individual. the glory of your mother and for the sake of all your saints Heinrich, your humble servant, and the abbot Further Reading Erkenfried\u201d (1029\u20131033). These few lines represent a biographical hint, and from them a most ingenious bi- Freytag, Wiebke. \u201cDas Priesterleben des sogenannten Heinrich ography has been constructed for Heinrich. He has been von Melk. Redeformen, Rezeptionsmo dus und Gattung.\u201d identified as a conversus, a lay brother associated with Deutsche Vierteljahresschrift 52 (1978): 558\u2013580. a monastery. The monastery in question was assumed to be the Benedictine monastery of Melk in Austria, Gentry, Francis G. Bibliographie zur fr\u00fchmittelhochdeutschen since an abbot Erkenfried governed that monastery geistlichen Dichtung. Berlin: Schmidt, 1992, pp. 233\u2013239. 1122\u20131163. Because of the sharpness of the poet\u2019s at- tacks and the depth of his acquaintanceship with courtly \u2014\u2014. \u201cOwe armiu phaffheite: Heinrich von Melk\u2019s Views on life, Heinrich was thought to be a noble who, becoming Clerical Life.\u201d In Medieval Purity and Piety: Essays on progressively repelled by the world and rejected by un- Medieval Clerical Celibacy and Religious Reform, ed. Mi- grateful children, withdrew to a monastery as an older chael Frassetto. New York and London: Garland, 1998, pp. man. There, he seemed to have immersed himself in 337\u2013352. studies and found it as his duty to admonish all classes of society, particularly disreputable priests, regarding Kienast, Richard. Der sogenannte Heinrich von Melk. Nach R. their duties as Christians. Heinzels Ausgabe von 1867. Heidelberg: Winter, 1946. Unfortunately, this biography is not accurate. Ab- Maurer, Friedrich, ed. Die religi\u00f6sen Dichtungen des 11. und bot Erkenfried of Melk could scarcely be Heinrich\u2019s 12. Jahrhunderts. Nach ihren Formen Besprochen, Vol. 3. patron since the two poems exhibit verse and rhyme T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1970, pp. 258\u2013359. techniques that reflect a period later than 1163 (e.g., a very high percentage of pure rhymes and a minimum Neuser, Peter-Erich. \u201cDer sogenannte Heinrich von Melk.\u201d In of overlong lines of twelve to fourteen syllables). In Die deutsche Literatur des Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon, addition, the contents of the poems underscore con- ed. Kurt Ruh, et al, vol. 3. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter, cerns such as the validity of sacraments administered 1981, cols. 787\u2013797. by unworthy priests, and display conventions regarding court customs and the secular love lyric of a time more \u2014\u2014. Zum sogenannten Heinrich von Melk. \u00dcberlieferung, accurately located within the last quarter of the twelfth Forschungsgeschichte und Verfasserfrage der Dichtungen century. In the final analysis, there is only reasonable Vom Priesterleben und Von des todes gehugede. Vienna and certainty that the author of both works was a layman, Cologne: B\u00f6hlau, 1973. possibly a conversus, who demonstrated in his writings many manifestations of the popular piety movement of Scholz Williams, Gerhild. \u201cAgainst Court and School. Heinrich of the twelfth century. These included his diatribes against Melk and Hlinant of Froidmont as Critics of Twelfth-Century dishonorable priests, criticisms of violations of sump- Society.\u201d Neophilologus 62 (1978): 513\u2013526. tuary laws, invectives against the pride of the nobility, and general hostility toward worldly affairs when they \u2014\u2014. The Vision of Death: A Study of the \u201cMemento mori\u201d Ex- interfered with performing one\u2019s Christian duty. pressions in some Latin, German and French Didactic Texts of the 11th and 12th Centuries. G\u00f6ppingen: K\u00fcmmerle, 1976. The Heinrich of Von des todes Gehugde and Vom Priesterleben is a layman who speaks about theological Vollmann-Profe, Gisela. Geschichte der deutschen Literatur von matters on an equal level with members of the clergy. den Anf\u00e4ngen bis zum Beginn der Neuzeit, vol. 1, pt. 2: Wie- He not only addresses a noble lay audience in the one derbeginn volkssprachiger Schriftlichkeit im hohen Mittelalter. work, he represents the interests of this group to a cleri- 2nd ed. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1994, pp. 93\u201397; 130\u2013137. cal audience in the other. His writing affirms the worth of the lay nobility and its view of the vital role it plays Francis G. Gentry within the Christian order, a role that is becoming a dominant one in relation to the clergy. This confidence HEINRICH VON MORUNGEN (D. 1220) and positive self-image finds its quintessential expres- A contemporary of Albrecht von Johansdorf and Hart- mann von Aue, Heinrich von Morungen represents the pinnacle of \u201cclassical\u201d Minnesang around 1200. He is considered to be one of the most important lyric poets writing in German during the courtly period, and per- haps the most important Minnes\u00e4nger after Reinmar and Walther von der Vogelweide. Traces of dialect in Morungen\u2019s poems show him to be from central eastern Germany. Morungen\u2019s family probably came from a manor near Sangershausen in Thuringia. The poet named as Her Heinrich von Mo- runge in the famous Heidelberg Minnesang manuscript is commonly identified with a certain Hendricus\/Henri- cus de Morungen, who is mentioned in two documents 307","HEINRICH VON MORUNGEN distinguishing himself from the object of his affections, and by speaking about his desire in the language of the from between 1213 and 1218 that bear the seal of the text. Through the poem and through language, the act margrave Dietrich of Meissen. In one of the documents, of looking transcends a purely erotic level of reflection, Morungen is described as a retired soldier (miles emeri- approaching a more existential one. Thus, looking also tus), who has received for his good service a yearly pen- functions as a metaphor for the poetic process, for the sion of ten marks. He apparently gave this pension to search for truth and its representation through language. the cloister of St. Thomas in Leipzig. According to later In this way, Morungen raises Minnesang from a purely sources, Morungen died in the monastery in 1222. Since social purpose to an art form, thereby creating an aes- Dietrich of Meissen was the son-in-law of Hermann of thetic of service to women (Frauendienst). Thuringia, patron of Wolfram von Eschenbach and oth- ers, the records thus place Morungen at a court that was Motifs that previously played a relatively minor a center of literary activity in the German-speaking area role in Minnesang, particularly those that show love as in the early thirteenth century. Since Morungen hailed enchantment or a magic force that pulls human beings from an area controlled by the Hohenstaufen family, it into its sphere, take on a central role. Classical in origin is quite possible that Heinrich could have learned his (Ovid), such motifs closely connect Morungen\u2019s lyric to craft at the court of Frederick I Barbarossa. As a poet, the concept of love portrayed in the early courtly epic then, Morungen could possibly have appeared and\/or of the late twelfth century. In Veldeke\u2019s Eneit and in performed at the court of Meissen contemporaneously Gottfried\u2019s Tristan, for example, courtly love (minne) with poets such as Walther von der Vogelweide. is a magical and sometimes deadly power. As the lyric subject, Morungen experiences the same fate as the While it is not known whether Morungen was a pro- epic heroes\u2014submission through the magic of love fessional poet, he was one of the first Latin-educated despite the threat of sickness, madness, or death. This secular poets (Minnes\u00e4nger) in Germany; probably there magic arises from the beauty of the beloved; she is the was no other poet of the time who owed so much to the moon, the stars, the sun, who sends down her light from Latin poet Ovid. Morungen\u2019s adaptations of classical afar. In the poem known as the Venus-Lied, the lady is Ovidian themes influenced such younger contempo- a noble Venus (\u201cein Venus h\u00eare,\u201d no. 138, 33), whose raries, as Herbort von Fritzlar. Morungen\u2019s poems are beauty shines like the sun from a window. This beauty dated approximately twenty years before the documents can inspire pure joy, and the word wunne (joy) appears that show his name. Characteristic is his formal style, often in Morungen\u2019s poems. (A notable example is In s\u00f4 artistically advanced, yet owing much to the style of the h\u00f4her swebender wunne [\u201cIn joy floating so high,\u201d no. earlier French troubadors. Formal stylistic connections 125, 19].) The beloved can also be a sweet murderess to the school of Friedrich von Hausen (such as rhymed in the poem Vil s\u00fceziu, senftiu t\u00f4terinne (\u201cVery sweet, strophes and dactyls) and Morungen\u2019s later influence soft murderess,\u201d no. 147, 4), who inspires a love that on Walther von der Vogelweide suggest that Morungen will last into the next world beyond death. The intimate wrote before 1200. Although a definitive chronology connection between love, death, and sorrow brings this has not been established, 115 strophes, arranged in 35 love very close to a mystical experience; there is an poems, are attributed to Morungen. obvious link to Gottfried here as well. But in the conflict it reveals between reality and dream or fantasy, the ex- Morungen is known primarily, not for his style, but perience of the lover also harkens back to the metaphor for his use of images and symbols. The images grow of Narcissus, whose fascination with his own projection out of the senses; foremost among these is sight: mir- has deadly results. rors, windows, dreams, colors, dawn and twilight. As a visual person (Augenmensch), Morungen describes Although Morungen cannot be said to have a school love that centers around vision and the contemplation of his own like that of Friedrch von Hausen, one can of the beloved. It is a woman\u2019s beauty, not her virtue, find thematic and stylistic evidence of his influence on that awakens in men the desire for love. Morungen Walther von der Vogelweide. Interestingly, Morungen does not, however, focus on physical sensuality; rather himself is the hero of a ballad, \u201cOn the Honorable it is the act of seeing, or of beholding physical beauty, Morunger\u201d (Vom Edlen M\u00f6ringer), that dates from the that enables the looker to perceive actual or true love, middle of the fifteenth century. a perfect happiness, an absolute love. The looker, like Narcissus, loses and forgets himself as he beholds the See also Friedrich von Hausen; beauty before him; moreover, this experience also en- Gottfried von Stra\u00dfburg ables him to create his own identity as a subject. This act of creating the subject is epitomized in the poem Further Reading Mir ist geschehen als einem kindel\u00eene (\u201cIt happened to me like a child,\u201d no. 145, 1), known as the \u201cNarcissus Bertau, Karl. Deutsche Literatur im europ\u00e4ischen Mittelalter, vol. Song\u201d (Narzissuslied) for its allusions to this myth. Here 1: 800\u20131197. Munich: Beck, 1972, pp. 676\u2013677. the speaker\/lover\/subject overcomes his narcissism by 308","Bumke, Joachim. Geschichte der deutschen Literatur im hohen HEINRICH VON VELDEKE Mittelalter, vol. 2. Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, 1990. He was knowledgeable in the literatures and languages of Germany, of France, and of antiquity, employing the de Boor, Helmut. Geschichte der deutschen Literatur von den Stra\u00dfburg Alexander, the Old French Roman d\u2019Eneas Anf\u00e4ngen bis zur Gegenwart, vol. 2. 11th ed. Die h\u00f6fische and Virgil\u2019s Aeneid as models for his own version of the Literatur. Vorbereitung, Bl\u00fcte, Ausklang. 1170\u20131250. Munich: epic. He was also acquainted with Dictys and Dares, Beck, 1991. Ovid, and Servius. Both German and Dutch scholars claim him as their own. Glaser, Horst Albert, ed. M\u00fcndlichkeit in die Schriftlichkeit. Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1988, pp. 164\u2013185. Whether or not the original language of Veldeke\u2019s major work was Old Limburgian or a more universal Hayes, Nancy Karl. \u201cNegativizing Narcissus: Heinrich von Mo- German literary language has occupied a great deal rungen at Julia Kristeva\u2019s Court.\u201d The Journal of the Midwest of time and effort among Veldeke scholars. Ludwig Modern Language Association 22 (1989): 43\u201360. Ettm\u00fcller published the first edition of the Eneasro- man in 1882 based upon the larger number of Upper \u201cHeinrich von Morungen.\u201d In Lexikon des Mittelalters, vol. 4. German manuscripts. Ettm\u00fcller believed the original Munich and Zurich: Artemis, 1977, cols. 2101\u20132102. to have been transcribed in a lowland dialect, but he did not think it was possible to reconstruct the original Kasten, Ingrid. \u201cKlassischer Minnesang.\u201d In: Deutsche Literatur. text. Some thirty years later, Otto Behaghel attempted Eine Sozialgeschichte. Bd. 1. a R\u00fcck\u00fcbersetzung (a translation back to the older lan- guage), as did Gabriele Schieb and Theodor Frings in Moser, Hugo and Helmut Tervooren, ed. Des Minnesangs the 1960s. All existing versions of the epic, however, Fr\u00fchling, 37th rev. ed. Stuttgart: Hirzel, 1981 [poems cited are Middle German, Upper German, or High German above by no.]. (Ober-deutscb and Hochdeutsch). Schnell, R\u00fcdiger. \u201cAndreas Capellanus, Heinrich von Morungen Whatever the original language, the work\u2019s influence und Herbort von Fritzlar.\u201d Zeitschriji f\u00fcr Deutsches Altertum reached exclusively to Upper German regions rather und Deutsche Literatur 104 (1975): 131\u2013151. than to Veldeke\u2019s supposed home in Limburg. Gottfried von Stra\u00dfburg acknowledges Heinrich as the first graft Alexandra Sterling-Hellenbrand upon the stem of German literature, and his influence can be traced in a number of later German authors. In HEINRICH VON VELDEKE addition, one of his sources seems to have been the (ca. 1150\u20131200) Stra\u00dfburg Alexander, composed in an Alemannic dialect (and thus Upper German). The Eneide also bears a close, Uncertainty surrounds the poet Heinrich von Veldeke, but problematic, relationship to the German Tristrant known primarily for his Eneasroman (The Story of Ae- of Eilhart von Oberge. The question of language is neas), but known also as the composer of St. Servatius known in Veldeke studies as \u201cThe Veldeke Problem.\u201d and several love lyrics. Heinrich finished only about Though no one has unequivocally settled the question, four-fifths of his Eneide between 1170 and 1175, be- the interpolation of a Limburg dialect seems to be the cause someone purportedly stole his manuscript from a invention of Ettm\u00fcller rather than an actual fact. Veldeke wedding celebration at Cleve. Through the intervention apparently sought the widest possible German-speaking of Hermann, count of Thuringia, he regained access audience for his work. to it and completed it about 1185. Heinrich\u2019s works remain elusive due to a dearth of adequate critical Among scholars, the most widely-discussed criti- research; and the literature that attempts to outline cal topics concerning the Eneasroman, include the the circumstances of his life and his creative activity romances of Eneas with Dido and Lavinia, and the is also inconclusive. Nevertheless, he is considered the comparison of these to the Old French versions and to father of German vernacular literature of the Middle Virgil. For instance, for pursuing his fate and the will Ages, a model for immediate contemporaries and later of the gods, Virgil does not blame Aeneas for abandon- imitators alike. ing Dido. The Old French and Middle High German authors portray her love as undisciplined, unsanctioned Heinrich must have been born in the first half of by society, and unrequited by Eneas, but do so more the twelfth century, perhaps in a place called Veldeke sympathetically than does Virgil. Veldeke demonstrates or Velker Mole near Hasselt and Maastricht in what even more compassion for Dido than does the French was, at the time, Limburgian Belgium. Early witnesses poet. In both vernacular versions, the poets expand upon recorded his identity variously as Heinrich, Heynrijck, the relationship of Virgil\u2019s Aeneas and Lavinia, provid- Hainrich, or Heinric, from (van or von) Veltkilche(n), ing a commentary on ideal love, Lavinia\u2019s \u201clegitimate\u201d Veldeckh, Veldeg, and Veldig, as well as Veldeke. Some love, overcoming the \u201cillicit\u201d love of Dido and Eneas. poets referred to him as \u201cLord\u201d and \u201cMaster,\u201d indicating According to the critical literature, the love theme then that he was a noble and educated. There was, in fact, a Veldeke family of the lesser nobility in the Maastricht region. Heinrich may have been related to and served the counts of Loon. Reminiscences of other authors and texts in his own work are evidence of his familiarity with ancient and contemporary literature, suggesting that he might have studied in a cathedral or monastery school. 309","HEINRICH VON VELDEKE Gabriele Schieb. Die epischen Werke des Henric van Velde- ken, vol. 1. Halle (Saale): Niemeyer, 1956. blends with the notion of governing (Herrschaft und Liebe), and finally modulates until notions of peace and Kristine K. Sneeringer of rulership prevail. H\u00c9LO\u00cfSE (1100\/01\u20131163\/64) Commentators have related various portions of the text, especially those known as the Stauferpartien, to the H\u00e9lo\u00efse, abbess of the famous monastery of the Para- rule of Frederick I Barbarossa. These include references clete and its six daughter houses, was raised as a pos- to the great Hoffest at Mainz in 1184 and the finding of sibly illegitimate child in the Benedictine convent of Pallas\u2019s grave by the emperor. At least one scholar, how- Sainte-Marie of Argenteuil. At the age of seventeen, ever, believes the work may have been written, at least she continued her studies at her uncle Fulbert\u2019s house initially, on behalf of Henry the Lion. Although critics in Paris, where she was tutored by the theologian Peter debate many details of this work, they agree that Veldeke Ab\u00e9lard (1079\u20131142). After a stormy love affair with refined and expanded upon his model, and in general H\u00e9lo\u00efse, Ab\u00e9lard offered the Paraclete and its lands as created an important work of art. Finally, Veldeke was a refuge to H\u00e9lo\u00efse and her fellow nuns. Pope Innocent the first to imitate French models in composing love II confirmed the donation in 1131. H\u00e9lo\u00efse left us three songs in the German vernacular. letters to Ab\u00e9lard and one letter to Peter the Venerable (ca. 1092\u20131156). She is mentioned frequently in the Of less interest and importance is Heinrich\u2019s St. cartulary of the Paraclete as a competent and efficient Servatius, a work that exists in total in a manuscript of abbess who turned her religious house into one of the the fifteenth century in a New Limburgian dialect. A most prestigious women\u2019s monasteries in France. Its rule fragment remains of an Old Limburg version, though stressed the importance of education for all nuns, the there is also an Upper German Servatius. As with the unusual relaxation of strict enclosure, and the authority Eneasroman, text and critical problems have signifi- of the abbess over both male and female members of cantly hampered understanding of this work. Like the the monastic community. Eneide, the transcription of Heinrich\u2019s lyric poetry is entirely Upper German, though the impurity of his In Peter Ab\u00e9lard\u2019s biographical Historia calamita- rhymes in these poems and songs points to less care tum and his moving correspondence with her, H\u00e9lo\u00efse and perhaps a greater affinity for his mother tongue than emerges as an articulate and heroic person who equals does his romance. Ab\u00e9lard in rhetorical sophistication and surpasses him in personal integrity. Her letters reveal a woman of deep See also Eilhart von Oberge; love and devotion who remained attached to Ab\u00e9lard Frederick I Barbarossa with both the bond of friendship and the memory of their earlier passion. Moreover, in her own mind, she Further Reading was convinced that she had acted throughout the entire affair with disinterested love, devoted only to Ab\u00e9lard, Bathgate, R. H. \u201cHendrik van Veldeke\u2019s The Legend of St. Servaes while he had begun with lust only and never achieved Translated.\u201d Dutch Crossing 40 (1990): 3\u201322. her level of disinterested love, even though it was he who had taught her the true understanding of love and Behaghel, Otto, ed. Heinrichs von Veldeke Eneide, Heilbronn: friendship. Gebr. Henninger, 1882. See also Ab\u00e9lard, Peter; Peter the Venerable Dittrich, Marie-Luise. Die \u2018Eneide\u2019 Heinrichs von Veldeke. Part 1. Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1966. Further Reading Fromm, Hans. Arbeiten zur deutschen Literatur des Mittelalters. Ab\u00e9lard, Peter. Historia calamitatum: texte critique avec intro- T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1989. duction, ed. Jacques Monfrin. 2nd ed. Paris: Vrin, 1962. Kasten, Ingrid. \u201cHerrschaft und Liebe. Zur Rolle und Darstellung Charrier, Charlotte. H\u00e9lo\u00efse dans l\u2019histoire et la l\u00e9gende. Paris: des \u2018Helden\u2019 im Roman d\u2019Eneas und in Veldeke\u2019s Eneasro- Champion, 1933. man.\u201d Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift f\u00fcr deutsche Literaturwis- senschaft und Geistesgeschichte 62 (1988): 227\u2013245. Newman, Barbara. \u201cAuthority, Authenticity, and the Repression of Heloise.\u201d Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies Kistler, Renate. Heinrich von Veldeke und Ovid. T\u00fcbingen: 22 (1992): 121\u201357. Niemeyer, 1993. Pernoud, R\u00e9gine. H\u00e9lo\u00efse and Ab\u00e9lard, trans. Peter Wiles. Lon- Klein, Thomas. \u201cHeinrich von Veldeke und die mitteldeutschen don: Collins, 1973. Literatursprachen. Untersuchungen zum Veldeke-Problem.\u201d Zwei Studien zu Veldeke und zum Strassburger Alexander. Peter the Venerable. The Letters of Peter the Venerable, ed. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1985. Giles Constable. 2 vols. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967. von Veldeke, Heinrich. Eneasroman. Mittelhochdeutsch \/ Neuhochdeutsch, trans. Dieter Kartschoke. Stuttgart: Rec- lam, 1986. \u2014\u2014. Eneide, ed. Theodor Frings and Gabriele Schieb. 3 vols. Berlin: Akademie, 1964\u20131970. \u2014\u2014. Eneit, trans. J. W. Thomas. New York: Garland, 1985. \u2014\u2014. Sente Servos, Sanctus Servatius, ed. Theodor Frings and 310","Radice, Betty, trans. The Letters of Abelard and Heloise. Har- HENRIQUE, PRINCE OF PORTUGAL mondsworth: Penguin, 1974. Castile, or the Canary Islands, \u201cand have the affairs of Ulrike Wiethaus this kingdom [Portugal] in the palm of his hand.\u201d Little survives of any writing of Henriques\u2019s own, but the two HENRIQUE, PRINCE OF PORTUGAL probably authentic memoranda from his pen recommend (1394-1460) crusades against Tangier and M\u00e1laga. His attempt to conquer Tangier in 1437, however, was a costly failure, Conventionally known as \u201cthe Navigator,\u201d Henrique and thereafter he concentrated on alternative fields of was born in Oporto (Portuguese: Porto) on 4 March endeavor in which he had already dabbled: maritime 1394. His father, Jo\u00e3o I, was a bastard who had fought deeds and, in particular, his effort to acquire a realm in his way to the throne. The chivalric culture of the court the Canary Islands. in which Henrique grew up cloaked the imperfections of the new dynasty\u2019s credentials. Many chivalric romances of the period had a seaborne setting, and a common denouement placed the hero in As the fourth of the king\u2019s sons, Henrique had no an island-kingdom. Portuguese ports had played a part prospect of the crown. He had, however, the example in the exploration of the eastern Atlantic since the 1340s of his grandfather, John of Gaunt, who maintained an and there is evidence in chronicles and maps that Portu- affinity of kingly proportions and sought a crown of guese navigation intensified in that arena in the 1420s. his own in Spain through wars, conducted to resemble That Henrique was already involved is an assertion of knightly cavalcades. Though little direct evidence a chronicle he later commissioned. In the following survives of Henrique\u2019s life up to 1415, the priorities decade, however, independent documents confirmed of an upbringing dominated by knightly exercises are his interest. In 1432 his claims to the Canaries led the conveyed in the treatise on chivalry attributed to his pope to solicit opinions from jurists on the question of eldest brother. The chivalric ideal informed his whole the legitimacy of war against the pagan inhabitants. It career. Though he was later obliged to become involved is evident from friars\u2019 protests that Henrique\u2019s career in commerce and industry in an effort to maintain his as a slaver, to be continued in the next decade on the estate, he always projected the self-perception of a per- African coast, began in the Canaries by 1434. His efforts fect knight, espousing celibacy, practicing asceticism, to secure a base in the archipelago continued with few and professing religious motives for slave raids and interruptions almost until his death but were rewarded attempted conquests. with no permanent success: some islands remained in the natives\u2019 hands, others in those of Castilian adven- After contemplating a tournament of unprecedented tures or settlers. magnificence to celebrate the knighting of his sons, the king decided in 1415 to launch instead a real chevau- After his father\u2019s death in 1433, the sense of voca- ch\u00e9e (chivalric attack) against a traditional enemy, the tion attributed to him by contemporaries seems to Muslims of Ceuta. The princes themselves were said to have deepened. He felt destined for great deeds by his have urged this change of plan. The chronicle tradition horoscope\u2014his chronicler tells us\u2014and endowed, by assigns Henrique a prominent part in the conquest and inheritance from King Jo\u00e3o, with a \u201ctalent\u201d that had in the next few years he earned offices of honor and to \u201cshine forth.\u201d Portuguese ambassadors in 1437 told profit comparable to those of his brothers. By 1423 he the pope that Henrique\u2019s aim was \u201cexpressly to fulfil was the duke of Viseu, the governor of Ceuta and the the image and likeness of King Jo\u00e3o.\u201d Between 1438 Algarve, and the administrator of the Order of Christ. and 1449, all his surviving brothers died. The death of He remained, however, a cadet prince with an ill-defined the Infante Fernando, in captivity in Fez in 1443, was role who chose to reside away from court, chiefly in a heavy charge on his conscience, for Fernando was the Algarve, and to surround himself with a retinue of a victim of the debacle at Tangier and Henrique had \u201cknights\u201d and \u201csquires\u201d whom he maintained at great opposed the possible surrender of Ceuta in ransom. In cost and no small trouble: documents concerning crimes adopting a homonymous nephew as his heir, he shoul- by members of his household cover murder, rape, and dered a fatherly responsibility. In 1449 he became the piracy. This entourage was not only evidence of Hen- senior surviving prince of his line when his elder brother, rique\u2019s pretensions; it also committed him to a quest for Pedro, fell in rebellion against the crown. patronage with which to reward his followers. Meanwhile, he had accumulated resources to invest His ambitions are suggested in a memorandum in his offshore activities. As well as the income from addressed to his father in April 1432: the Count of the Order of Christ and the revenues of his many fiefs, Arraiolos, who knew Henrique well, observed that he controlled extensive fishing rights, including the he might acquire a kingdom in Morocco, Granada, monopoly of the tuna-curing industry of the Algarve; the monopoly of soap manufacture throughout the kingdom 311","HENRIQUE, PRINCE OF PORTUGAL Further Reading was his, as was that of coral gathering off Ceuta. His Dias Dinis, A.J. Estudos henriquinos. Coimbra, 1960. maritime activities were exempt from the royal tax on Monumenta Henricina. 15 vols. Coimbra, 1960\u201375. booty and he had the sole right to license voyages to Russell, P. E. Henry the Navigator. New Haven, Conn. 2001. Madeira, the Azores, and the Atlantic coast of Africa. \u2014\u2014. Prince Henry the Navigator: The Rise and Fall of a Cul- These arenas occupied an increasing amount of his ture-Hero. Oxford, 1984. attention as his prospects in Morocco and the Canaries Zurara, G.E. de. Cronica dos feitos not\u00e1veis que se passaram na waned. He expressed interest in settling a colony on Madeira as early as 1433; in June and July 1439, seed conquista da Guin\u00e9. Ed. T. de Sousa Soares. Lisbon, 1978. and sheep were shipped to Madeira and at least one of the Azores; thereafter, colonization was farmed out to Felipe Fern\u00e1ndez\u2013Armesto enterprising intermediate lords, who were normally Henrique\u2019s dependents (though his brother and nephew HENRY I (1067\/68\u20131135; r. 1100\u201335) were the superior lords in some cases). Henrique was a partner in the building of the first recorded sugar-mill in Youngest son of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Madeira in 1452: this made him a founding patron of an Flanders, he was left rich but landless on William\u2019s death important new industry of the late Middle Ages. in 1087. He used part of his inheritance to purchase the Cotentin and Avranchin from his eldest brother, the per- Meanwhile, navigation under Henrique\u2019s patronage, petually penniless Robert Curthose, duke of Normandy. or with his license, extended along the African coast. In 1091 he lost these provinces to the combined military The chronicle he commissioned established the belief, forces of his brothers Robert and William Rufus, king of which historians continued to uphold until very recently, England, but he later came to terms with Rufus. In 1096 that African exploration was the primary focus of the Robert pawned Normandy to William and set off upon prince\u2019s endeavours. The much-vaunted rounding of crusade. As Robert was returning in 1100, William was Cape Bojador in 1434 was a minor byproduct of the killed in a hunting accident and Henry seized the throne. effort to seize the Canaries; to judge from surviving Because of the timing of the death Henry has been maps and sailing directions, \u201cCape Bojador\u201d probably suspected of being in a murder plot, but the evidence signified nothing more remote than the modern Cape supports the view that Rufus was accidentally shot. Juby. The great series of African voyages began in ear- nest only in 1441. From the mid-1440s, this enterprise Upon his accession Henry issued a coronation char- began to yield appreciable amounts of gold and slaves. ter, denouncing the abuses of his brother\u2019s reign and Around the middle of the next decade, when Henrique agreeing to rule England by the laws of Edward the employed Genoese technicians to supplement his house- Confessor. He set about filling some of the vacant bish- hold personnel, significant progress in navigation was oprics and recalled Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, made when the Senegal and Gambia Rivers were inves- from continental exile. He then married the Scottish tigated and the Cape Verde Islands discovered. The big princess Matilda, who carried the blood of the line of advances, however, both in the reach of exploration and Alfred the Great. The marriage produced two children, the yield of exploitable resources, came in the generation Matilda (b. 1102) and William (b. 1103). Matilda was after Henrique\u2019s death, as Portuguese navigators worked betrothed to the German emperor Henry V and left their way around Africa\u2019s bulge. Meanwhile, in 1458, England in 1110. Portugal\u2019s crusading vocation in the Maghrib was briefly revived and Henrique accompanied the royal expedition The first years of Henry\u2019s reign were spent consoli- that seized Al-Qasr Kebir, near Ceuta. dating his rule and fighting against Robert Curthose, who invaded in 1101 to claim the throne. In the Treaty Henrique died in Sagres on 13 November 1460. The of Alton Robert renounced his claim to the throne in Canaries still eluded him; no crown adorned his head; return for an annual pension. However, he continued to of the gold of Africa only a few threads had come within be troublesome, and because he could not keep peace in his grasp; and he was heavily in debt. He had, however, the duchy of Normandy Henry was asked to intervene. invested wisely in posthumous fame and has enjoyed an In July 1106 Henry launched an invasion that culminated enduring reputation as Portugal\u2019s culture hero, credited in the pitched battle at Tinchebrai on 28 September. anachronistically with the foundation of the Portuguese Robert was captured and remained in captivity until Empire and with the inauguration of a tradition of sci- he died in 1134. Even then Henry could not be secure entific exploration. Modern scholarship disavows these in his possession of Normandy, because Robert\u2019s son, claims, but as a patron of the colonization of Madeira William Clito, also had a claim to the duchy, and Henry and the Azores he can genuinely be counted among the had to put down several revolts. creators of Atlantic colonial societies. A major challenge to Henry came in 1111, when See also Jo\u00e3o I, King of Portugal Louis VI of France joined with the counts of Anjou and Flanders. Henry emerged the victor by negotiating a separate peace with the count of Anjou; Louis was 312","forced to recognize English overlordship in Maine and HENRY I OF SAXONY Brittany. Hostilities resumed in 1116, when some Nor- man barons joined a rebellion in favor of Clito. When and sophistication argue that it is one of a series of such the count of Flanders was killed in 1118, Henry again documents. It is a rich source, showing among other used his diplomatic skills, marrying his son William to things that many legal reforms once credited to Henry the daughter of the Angevin count. At this point Louis II were operative by the reign of his grandfather. complained to the pope about Henry\u2019s action, but Ca- lixtus II remained friendly to both sides and Normandy Although some historians have characterized Henry\u2019s was at peace by 1120. rule over England and Normandy as harsh, others have shown that contemporaries considered the reign to be Tragedy struck in 1120, with the death of Henry\u2019s successful; it provided England with 33 years of peace only legitimate son, William, drowned when his ship and prosperity. Even in Normandy, which traditionally struck a rock in the Channel. With this death the suc- suffered from a fractious barony, Henry\u2019s peace was cession was thrown into doubt. Henry\u2019s queen had seriously broken only twice after 1106. His accomplish- died in 1118, and after William\u2019s death Henry quickly ments in war and diplomacy, law, and administration married Adeliza (or Alice) of Louvain in 1121. But as combine to show him as one of England\u2019s most able time passed, it became clear that they were not going to and effective rulers. produce children, and Henry was forced to make plans for a successor. See also Anselm of Bec; William I The years 1123\u201324 were marked by Norman Further Reading insurrection. When Henry V of Germany died in 1125, Henry recalled his daughter and began to concentrate Green, Judith A. The Government of England under Henry I. on making her a viable candidate for the throne. After Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986 obtaining a promise from his barons to support Matilda, Henry married her to Geoffrey of Anjou. This marriage Hollister, C. Warren. Monarchy, Magnates, and Institutions in was not popular with the barons, and Matilda herself the Anglo-Norman World. London: Hambledon, 1986 [valu- did not command their loyalty. After Henry\u2019s death in able collected papers, mainly on political and administrative 1135 the throne was seized by his nephew Stephen of topics] Blois. After years of civil war Matilda renounced her own claim, and Stephen agreed to recognize her eldest Hollister, C. Warren. \u201cCourtly Culture and Courtly Style in the son, Henry, as his heir. Anglo-Norman World.\u201d Albion 20 (1988): 1\u201317 Henry I\u2019s reign occurred during the European inves- Mooers, Stephanie I. \u201cA Reevaluation of Royal Justice under titure controversy, in which the reform papacy struggled Henry I of England.\u201d American Historical Review 93 (1988): with secular powers for control of the bishoprics. In 340\u201358 England this crisis came to a head when Archbishop Anselm refused to do homage to Henry for his fiefs and Newman, Charlotte A. The Anglo-Norman Nobility in the Reign to consecrate bishops whom Henry had already invested of Henry I: The Second Generation. Philadelphia: University with the ring and staff, the symbols of episcopal office. of Pennsylvania Press, 1988. When the pope refused to condone the English customs concerning lay investiture of clerics, Anselm returned Lois L. Honeycutt to the Continent. A compromise, giving the church the right to invest the ring and staff but permitting the king HENRY I OF SAXONY to take oaths of homage from the prelates, was effected (ca. 876\u2013July 2, 936) in 1106. King of East Francia\/Germany (K\u00f6nig von Ostfranken), In addition to unprecedented peace and prosperity Henry I (Heinrich I.) was born in ca. 876, the third son Henry I\u2019s reign also saw the development of important of Otto, duke of Saxony (ca. 830\/40\u2013912), a Liudolf- institutions of government. One of his accomplishments ing, and Hadwig (d. ca. 903), daughter of Henry of was the reform of the curia regis (king\u2019s court). He Ostfranken, a Babenberger. Henry was named after his organized royal offices and instituted regular payments maternal grandfather. (The name Henry was rare in the to his officials. This eliminated the need to plunder the ninth century; its oldest form is Haimeric [lord of the countryside as they moved about with the itinerant king. house].) Henry also systematized the treasury, and his reign saw the development of the exchequer\u2019s twice-yearly meet- About 900 Henry married Hatheburg (ca. 876\u2013ca. ings for collecting the taxes due the king. These sessions 909) in order to gain her inheritance of Merseburg and were recorded onto the \u201cpipe rolls.\u201d One pipe roll (from other lands in East Saxony. Hatheburg was a widow; 1130) survives for Henry\u2019s reign, and its completeness the local clergy objected to the marriage as she was said to have planned to become a nun. Their opposition did not deter Henry, however. They had one son, Thankmar (906\u2013937). The marriage was dissolved in 909. Not long after, Henry married Mathilde (born ca. 894\/897) of the family of Widukind of Saxony, Charlemagne\u2019s adversary. Though hardly love at first sight, contempo- rary sources noted a powerful attraction between the couple. Mathilde would become an influential wife and 313","HENRY I OF SAXONY Elder, who arrived in Saxony with a younger sister, Adiva. The marriage between Otto and Edith took place a formidable dowager before she died in March 968. sometime early in 930, when Henry undertook a lengthy Their eldest son Otto was born on November 23, 912, circuit of his kingdom. seven days before the death of the grandfather whose name he bore. There were four more children; Gerberga Henry\u2019s greatest accomplishment, however, was his (919\u2013968), Henry (922\u2013955), Hadwig (923\u2013958), and decisive action against the Magyars who had been at- Brun (925\u2013965). tacking East and West Francia since about 900. In 924 Henry\u2019s soldiers captured a Magyar chief, and, for his Upon the death of his father in 912, Henry became safe return, Henry demanded a nine-year truce, also duke of Saxony; there was immediate trouble with Con- securing a yearly tribute. During this truce, Henry cre- rad I (Konrad I), king of East Francia since 911. Conrad ated a mounted troop of soldiers to fight the Magyars distrusted Henry\u2019s power in Saxony. In addition, a long- and tested his new model army against the Slavs. He standing feud existed between them over the execution may also have built fortifications (Burgen) on the Elbe in 906 of the Babenberger Adalbert, Henry\u2019s maternal frontier. In March 933 Henry met with the invading uncle. Conrad\u2019s success in consolidating control over Magyar forces at the battle of Riade, which ended in Saxony was minimal, however. When he died in late De- victory for Henry\u2019s new cavalry. There was to be peace cember 918, he requested his brother Eberhard to offer on the Elbe frontier for a number of years. the crown to his former rival. Following several months of negotiations, Henry was chosen king at Fritzlar on By 935 Henry had achieved many of his goals: his May 5, 919. He was forty-three years old. relations with the dukes were based on contracts of friendship; he had defeated the Magyars, and his diplo- Henry declined to be crowned by the Church, as macy had secured a modicum of peace on his Western was the Carolingian custom, for reasons that ate not frontier. After a long illness, Henry held a diet at Erfurt altogether clear and have been debated by historians where he designated his eldest son by Mathilde as his ever since. His first actions were designed to extend successor. The future Otto I was then 24, married with his rule beyond the Carolingian kingdom of the Saxons two children, and a well-trained soldier. Henry I died and the Franks into the southern areas of East Francia. on July 2, 936, at Memleben. He was buried in the Ab- In Bavaria Duke Arnulf had declared himself king but bey Church of Quedlinburg where his tomb can still eventually abandoned his ambitions. Henry wisely be found. left Arnulf in control of Bavaria, demanding only that Arnulf acknowledge Henry\u2019s status as king. In Swabia Modern historians have given Henry an important the situation was more complicated. Burchard II, who place in the history of early medieval Germany, credit- had only recently become duke, acknowledged Henry as ing him with laying the foundations upon which his son king in 919 and promptly defeated his Burgundian rival Otto the Great created his empire. Tenth century writers Rudolph II in battle. In 922 the two made peace, and noted his prowess as a warrior and his physical beauty Rudolph married Burchard\u2019s daughter, persuading his and charm. In the twelfth century, Henry and Mathilde father-in-law to help him gain the crown of Italy. This were perceived as the ancestors of the kings of Europe. adventure ended in Burchard\u2019s death in 926. Henry was Henry was also surrounded by legends and stories. now in a position to impose a settlement in Swabia, and Perhaps the most enduring of these is the tale about his he appointed Hermann (a Conradiner) as duke. Henry receiving the crown while hunting birds. Thus, Henry also made a pact of friendship with Rudolph II. In return I would enter the popular imagination under the name for the Holy Lance, a valuable relic which the German \u201cthe Fowler\u201d (der Vogler). king coveted, Rudolph was allowed to keep the area of Basel which he already controlled. See also Otto I Diplomacy, military pressure, and waiting patiently Further Reading for the right moment to put his plans into action char- acterized Henry\u2019s dealings with the West Frankish king Althoff, Gerd and Hagen Keller. Heinrich I. und Otto der Grosse. Charles the Simple (d. 929) and his opponents, Robert Neubeginn auf karolingischem Erbe. G\u00f6ttingen: Muster- (d. 923) and Raoul (d. 936). Henry also secured the schmidt, 1985. submission of the volatile area of Lotharingia and its duke Gilbert (Giselbert), who married Henry\u2019s daughter B\u00fcttner, Heinrich. Heinrichs I. S\u00fcdwest- und Westpolitik. Con- Gerberga in 928. stance: Thorbecke, 1964. Now in his fifties, Henry issued a charter in 929 de- Diwalt, Helmut. Heinrich der Erste. Bergisch Gladbach: L\u00fcbbe, tailing the dower rights of his wife, the clerical education 1987. of his youngest son, Brun, and the marriage of his son Otto. The chosen bride was an Anglo-Saxon princess Leyser, Karl. Medieval Germany and its Neighbours, 900\u20131250. called Edith (ca. 912\u2013946), a daughter of Edward the London: Hambledon, 1982. Reuter, Timothy. Germany in the Early Middle Ages 800\u20131056. London: Longman, 1991. Madelyn Bergen Dick 314","HENRY II (1133\u20131189; r. 1154\u201389) HENRY II The eldest son of Count Geoffrey of Anjou and Matilda and decisively. It was achieved largely by a daring use of England (heiress of Henry I), born 5 March 1133. He of mercenary forces skilled in siege techniques, thus became duke of Normandy in 1150 and count of Anjou devaluing the castle as the traditional base of defense. in 1151. In May 1152 he married Eleanor, duchess of His dominance aroused not only the resentment of Aquitaine and disowned wife of Louis VII of France. the greater barons but also the apprehensions of his On the death of Stephen he became king of England, neighbors. at age 21, and was crowned on 19 December 1154. His children included Henry (d. 1183), Matilda, Richard the The most publicized but by no means the only ex- Lionheart, Geoffrey, duke of Brittany, Eleanor, Joan, and ample of Henry challenging special interest groups was John, as well as the illegitimate Geoffrey archbishop his conflict with the church. Though not opposed in of York and William Longsword, earl of Salisbury. He principle to the church extending and refining its juris- died on 6 July 1189. diction, Henry insisted that it should neither encroach on the crown\u2019s jurisdiction nor threaten crown interests. Tireless, well educated, and dismissive of conven- His tactic for ensuring smooth relations by installing an tional wisdom, Henry was also a man of seemingly ally, his chancellor and friend Thomas Becket, as arch- contradictory qualities: willful but calculating, obsti- bishop of Canterbury, backfired when Becket, showing nate but open-minded, volatile but purposeful, both a dedication to the church\u2019s power and independence magnanimous and vindictive, jealous of his rights but that surprised many who had been lukewarm about his indifferent to pomp and personal dignity. He was an nomination, vigorously defended his own authority. enigma to contemporaries and has elicited varying judg- ments from historians. Few students have denied that Henry tried to settle the issue by fiat, by issuing his he exercised a major influence on the course of western Constitutions of Clarendon (1166), based largely but European history. selectively on customary practice. His demand for an un- precedented oath of observance from the bishops united The wide dominions under his direct rule, covering them in resistance. It did not, however, unite them in more than half of France as well as England, may have support of Becket; some believed him to be mistakenly seemed largely ungovernable, but Henry\u2019s achievement provocative and tactically inept. Henry\u2019s not unreason- was to oblige all over whom he claimed jurisdiction to able stance was undermined by his vindictive harrying respect his authority and to overcome resistance swiftly of the archbishop, and it culminated, after a purported reconciliation, in intemperate words that prompted some King Henry II arguing with St. Thomas Becket, c1300\u2013c1325. Illustrated page of Latin text from \u201cChronical of England\u201d by Peter of Langtoft. \u00a9 Scala\/Art Resource, New York. 315","HENRY II found a solution to the age-old problem of how to deploy royal authority effectively without putting too much members of the royal household to murder Becket in discretionary power into the hands of subordinates. A December 1170. Henry was obliged to retreat publicly. less welcome consequence was the enhanced power of Eventually he salvaged much of what he had originally the crown to discriminate against individuals who were sought, though in a less provocative form. There are out of favor. A necessary corrective to overweening parallels to this in other aspects of his career. royal government was eventually to be found in Magna Carta, but it is significant that there was no attempt in All who resented his dominance sought to profit from the Great Charter to reverse the trends that Henry II had the setback to his reputation in the wake of Becket\u2019s fostered, that the closer integration of central and local martyrdom. In 1173\u201474 Louis VII of France orga- government was accepted and the development of the nized a coalition of Henry\u2019s opponents, both internal common law welcomed. and external, in a determined attempt to unseat him by insurrection and invasion. Henry, sustained by the See also Eleanor of Aquitaine; John; Richard I; loyalty of his servants and by popular support, survived Becket, Thomas triumphantly. He exacted no revenge, save upon his headstrong wife, who remained in close confinement for Further Reading the rest of his life, for having conspired with her former husband Louis to replace Henry with their malleable Gillingham, John. The Angevin Empire. London: Arnold, 1984; eldest son, the young king Henry. His victory persuaded Turner, Ralph V. \u201cThe Problem of Survival for the Angevin most barons that their future lay in cooperating with \u2018Empire\u2019: Henry II\u2019s and His Sons\u2019 Visions versus Late the king to secure his patronage instead of striving for Twelfth-Century Realities.\u201d American Historical Renew 100 autonomy. (1995): 78\u201396. Whether Henry intended the formation of an \u201cAn- Warren, W.L. The Governance of Norman and Angevin England, gevin Empire\u201d is debatable. His initial aggressiveness 1086\u20131272. London: Arnold, 1987 [differs in interpretation suggested expansionist aims, but there are clear signs from Gillingham\u2019s study]. that he came to detest the wasteful futility of warfare and limited his objectives to internal order. His intervention Warren, W.L. Henry II. Rev. ed. London: Methuen, 1991. in Ireland (1171) seems to have been a reluctant response to the need to control Anglo-Norman adventurers. He W.L. Warren was content to secure amicable relations with the Irish, as with the Welsh and the Scots. He intended to partition HENRY III (1028\/1046\u20131056) his dominions among his sons; it was his successors who sought to consolidate a unitary control that collapsed Henry III, son of the Emperor Conrad II (d. 1039) before a resurgent French monarchy. Henry\u2019s rule had, and Queen Gisela, daughter of Duke Hermann II of however, demonstrated how to make authority respected Swabia, was born on October 28, 1017 and died at age and how to harness it to effective government. 39 on October 5, 1056. Made duke of Bavaria at age ten, Henry was elevated by his father and the German In the kingdom of England there was, in Henry\u2019s magnates to the kingship of Germany in the following reign, a transformation in the processes of government year (1028). He shared the throne with his father until and in the methods of administering justice. It rested Conrad\u2019s death in 1039. In 1036, as part of a move to essentially on three linked developments. First, the secure the northern frontiers of the empire and perhaps decision to rest responsibility for bringing criminal control the Saxon nobility, Henry married his first wife, prosecutions not on official prosecutors but on local Kunigunde, daughter of King Cnut of Denmark. Their communities through \u201cjuries of presentment\u201d (the ori- daughter Beatrix (d. 1060) later became abbess of the gins of the grand jury). Second, the supervision of the Ottonian foundation of Quedlinburg. Kunigunde died operations of local government by investigative teams of in 1038. justices, who carried royal government into the shires, empowered but also limited by the terms of a carefully The year before his father\u2019s death, Henry had also framed commission. Third, the offer of the new and obtained the kingship of Burgundy and duchy of Swabia, much swifter methods of righting civil wrongs by means the latter of which he held until 1045. of common-form writs that set in motion standardized procedures and rested decisions on questions of fact In 1043, after assuming sole kingship of Germany in put to juries under the supervision of royal justices who 1039, he married his second wife, Agnes of Poitou (d. could put the power of the crown behind enforcement. 1077), daughter of Duke William V of Aquitaine, with whom he had three daughters and a son. One daughter, The flood of business that ensued prompted the de- Adelheid (d. 1095), became another abbess of Quedlin- velopment of central courts of justice and a quest for burg; the other two, Mathilda (d. 1060) and Judith more rational and sophisticated methods in all aspects (Sophia, d. 1092\/1096), were married, respectively, to of administration. In essence Henry and his advisers had Rudolf of Rheinfelden and King Salamo of Hungary and later King Wladyslaw of Poland. Crowned Holy Roman 316","Emperor in 1046, Henry ruled as king and emperor until HENRY III his death in 1056, when he was succeeded by his young son Henry IV (1050\u20131106). Duke of Upper Lotharingia. After Henry had ignored the duke\u2019s legitimate claim to the duchy of Lower Lo- Henry III\u2019s assumption of full royal powers in 1039 tharingia, deprived Godfried of his rule, and engaged was a smooth one, since the transition had been prepared in a program of ecclesiastical appointments designed to over a decade before by Henry\u2019s elevation to cokingship contain or weaken Godfried\u2019s power, the duke and his during his father\u2019s lifetime and by his direct control of allies revolted in 1044. Defeated in 1049, the duke took the duchies of Bavaria and Swabia and the kingdom of refuge in Italy, where, in 1054, he married, without the Burgundy. The addition of the southeastern duchy of king\u2019s approval, the heir to the margraviate of Tuscany, Carinthia to the regions under his direct rule in 1039 Beatrix, the former wife of the most powerful ruler in only enhanced his already strong political hold on the Italy, margrave Boniface. Fearing Godfried\u2019s potential southern portion of the German realm. He had also control of both Lotharingia and northern Italy, Henry en- arrived at the pinnacle of royal power after a careful tered Italy in 1055 and captured Beatrix and her daughter process of practical political and military training which Mathilda, while Godfried escaped north to Lotharingia. rendered him familiar with both the protocols of royal He submitted to Henry in the following year. justice and court business and the demands of military campaigns and the battlefield: in short, with the busi- Externally, Henry III was occupied by a series of ness of medieval rule. These experiences also prepared wars against the kings of Bohemia and Hungary. Taking him to begin building the vital networks of personal advantage of political disorder in Poland, King Vratislav connections with other magnates that enabled so much I of Bohemia (1034\u20131058) invaded Poland, thus chal- of royal rule in medieval Germany. lenging Henry\u2019s overlordship of the German kingdom. After a disastrous initial campaign in August of 1040, Ecclesiastics, such as the historian Wipo and the Henry emerged victorious over the Bohemians in 1041 polymath Berno of Reichenau, ensured that Henry not and compelled their king to pay tribute and recognize only received a basic literary education but also absorbed German hegemony. Henry then responded to Hungar- the ideals of theocratic kingship and participated, to a ian attacks upon the southern frontier with a series of degree, in contemporary currents of religious revival expeditions in 1042, 1043, and 1044, which resulted and reform. in victory and the submission of Hungary to Germany at Menf\u00f6. According to one scholar (Egon Boshof), Honored with the epithets spes imperii (hope of the Henry\u2019s aim was simple: the reduction of Germany\u2019s empire) and amicus pacis (friend of peace), Henry III eastern neighbors from independent states to kingdoms showed his commitment to the ideals of peace and jus- subordinate to German rule. Relations with Capetian tice early in his reign with his proclamation of public France in the West, though generally amicable, suffered peace and forgiveness of his opponents. At gatherings a setback in 1043\u20131046, when Henry\u2019s marriage to in Constance (1043), Trier (Christmas 1043), Menf\u00f6 in Agnes of Poitou increased anxieties about an alliance Hungary (1044), and Rome (1046), Henry exhorted, between the German kingdom and Aquitaine and pro- begged, and ordered his audiences to keep the peace voked an abortive French invasion of Lotharingia. and to forsake revenge upon enemies by following their king\u2019s example. Despite Henry\u2019s emphasis on and Known for his largely successful attempts to expand general success in establishing peace within his king- and enforce royal and imperial prerogatives within the dom\u2014a success which has led historians to consider his German kingdom, Henry III is perhaps most famous reign the \u201chigh-point of early medieval imperial rule\u201d for his zealous support of efforts to purify the clergy \u2014his reign was not without both internal and external and for his decisive action in reforming the Roman political crises. papacy. Like his predecessors, Henry had used clerics extensively both as administrative functionaries in his Internally, Henry\u2019s aggressive assertion of royal Hofkapelle and as loyal agents who, once established prerogatives and control met with particularly stiff local in bishoprics throughout Germany and Italy, enabled resistance in Lotharingia and Saxony. In Saxony, Henry him to strengthen the network of allies used to control exploited royal and imperial domains more intensively the empire\u2019s territories. But, touched by the contempo- than had his predecessors, established a new palace at rary ideals of a clergy free from the heretical taint of Goslar, and exercised tighter control over ecclesiastical simony (which came to be defined as the acquisition of affairs in the region, all of which set him at odds with ecclesiastical office through any form of recompense) the regional nobility and, especially, the noble family of and sexual impurity, Henry vigorously forbade simo- the Billungs. In contrast to the opposition of the Saxon niacal elections, granted free elections to abbeys and nobility, which simmered until the reign of Henry\u2019s churches, and took measures to raise the moral caliber son and only erupted in the Saxon War (1073\u20131089), of the clergy, efforts which brought him praise from the nobility of Lotharingia presented Henry with a monastic reformers like Peter Damian. formidable rival in the person of Godfried the Bearded, His most famous acts, however, came in 1046 when 317","HENRY III humbler ranks of clerks and squires. Lack of money and financial inexperience were his greatest handicaps. he entered Italy, deposed the three competing popes, Lavish grants from the royal revenues were made in the Gregory VI, Benedict DC, and Sylvester III, at synods in hope of winning friends and loyal support; they only Sutri and Rome, and appointed a succession of German added to the problem. Plots to depose Henry and restore bishops as popes: Clement II and Damasus II, both of Richard helped ensure the latter\u2019s death but did not end whom died soon after their elections. Although his bold opposition to the new king. action at Sutri was criticized by some as an inappropriate invasion of the ecclesiastical sphere by a secular ruler, Moreover in 1403 he married, as his second wife, Henry was nonetheless widely recognized for his efforts Joan of Navarre, widowed duchess of Brittany, whom to rid the papacy of corruption. His selection in 1048 of he may have met while in exile. A foreign queen, gener- Bishop Bruno of Toul, who would become Pope Leo IX ously endowed with estates and a household that was, (1049\u20131054), ushered in a new era of the papacy and of like Henry\u2019s, regarded by the Commons as extravagant, ecclesiastical reform. provided a further target for critics. Though earlier rebel- lions had been easily suppressed, the Welsh rising led See also Conrad II; Henry IV, Emperor; by Owen Glendower proved a serious harassment for Leo IX, Pope most of the reign. The Percys, entrusted to defend the northern border and to govern north Wales, defeated the Further Reading Scots at Homildon Hill in 1402 but soon became discon- tented with the role Henry permitted them and with the Boshof, Egon, Die Salier, 3rd ed. Stuttgart and Cologne: Kohl- payments he was able to afford them. hammer, 1995, pp. 143\u2013166. The Percys\u2019 first rebellion was defeated at Shrews- Henry III. Monumenta Germaniae Historica Diplomata Hein- bury in 1403, owing to Henry\u2019s swift reaction. Hotspur richs III, ed. H. Bre\u00dflau and P. Kehr. Berlin 1926\u20131931; rpt. was killed in battle and his uncle Worcester captured Munich: Monumenta Germaniae Historica, 1993. and beheaded, but the old earl of Northumberland lived to rebel again and finally to menace Henry from exile Prinz, Friedrich. \u201cKaiser Heinrich III. Seine widerspr\u00fcchliche in Scotland. With his parliaments Henry had a constant Beurteilung und deren Gr\u00fcnde.\u201d Historische Zeitschrift 246 struggle to secure money and to prevent them taking (1988): 529\u2013548. control of his council, from which his humbler friends were slowly excluded. After the Long Parliament of Schnith, K. \u201cRecht und Friede. Zum K\u00f6nigsgedanken im Umkreis 1406 Arundel, his ablest counselor, became chancellor Heinrichs III.\u201d Historisches Jahrbuch 81 (1962): 22\u201357. and controlled the government for several years but had to face new rivals: the emerging Beaufort family, the Weinfurter, Stefan, et al., ed. Die Salier und das Reich. 3 vols. children of Gaunt\u2019s mistress and then wife, Katherine Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1992, passim. Swynford, and thus the king\u2019s half-brothers. Wipo. The Deeds of Conrad II, trans. K. F. Morrison and T. Mom- Meanwhile Henry had been stricken with the mysteri- msen, in Imperial Lives and Letters. New York: Columbia ous illness that disfigured, disabled, and eventually University Press, 1962. killed him. After several years of campaigning in Wales the king\u2019s eldest son, Henry, succeeded in defeating William North the rebels and now joined the Beauforts to control the council. Thomas Beaufort replaced Arundel as chancel- HENRY IV (1366\u20131413; r. 1399\u20131413) lor. At some point the Beauforts tried to force Henry to abdicate in favor of the prince, but as the plot failed The only legitimate son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lan- evidence is almost entirely lacking. After some disputes, caster, a younger son of Edward III. Henry was born mainly over the question of war with France, a formal at Bolingbroke, Lincolnshire, probably in April 1366. reconciliation between father and son was effected, and Although a king\u2019s grandson, he could never have had Henry the usurper was able to leave his son an undis- any real expectations of becoming king and received no puted succession when he died in 1413. training for kingship. See also Edward III; Henry V; Richard II England was overrun without a fight. Richard was captured and induced to abdicate by the guile of Arun- Further Reading del and Northumberland. The oath that Henry swore at Doncaster\u2014that he had come to claim his own inheri- Brown, Alfred L. \u201cThe Commons and the Council in the Reign tance, not the crown\u2014was conveniently forgotten. On of Henry IV.\u201d EHR 79 (1964): 125\u201356. 30 September 1399 in the parliament at Westminster, without specifying the exact nature of his title, Henry Davies, Richard G. \u201cThomas Arundel as Archbishop of Can- claimed the throne. Twelve days later he was crowned terbury, 1396\u20131414.\u201d Journal of Ecclesiastical History 19 king. Holding the crown was to prove more difficult (1973): 9\u201321. than winning it. Among the nobility and gentry Henry found little support, and he was afraid to offend them by asking his parliaments for the taxes he needed. In the early part of the reign the great officers of state, the chancellor and treasurer and other counselors, were drawn from the 318","Harriss, G.L. Cardinal Beaufort: A Study of the Lancastrian As- HENRY IV, EMPEROR cendancy and Decline. Oxford: Clarendon, 1988 [especially valuable for the later part of the reign]. recover the crown lands, originally in the hands of the Ottonian rulers, in eastern Saxony and Thuringia. Kirby, John L. Henry IV of England. London: Constable, 1970 Essentially continuing his father\u2019s policies, Henry [modern and concise compared with Wylie]. strengthened and expanded them, forcing the Saxons to build and maintain fortifications that were garrisoned McNiven, Peter. \u201cPrince Henry and the English Political Crisis with southern German ministeriales. This policy pro- of 1412.\u201d History 65 (1980): 1\u201316. voked Saxon resistance, playing into the hands of Otto of Northeim. Otto had forfeited the duchy of Bavaria McNiven, Peter. Heresy and Politics in the Reign of Henry IV: in 1070 and formed an alliance with Magnus Billung, The Burning of John Badby. Woodbridge: Boydell, 1987 [a the duke of Saxony, and other magnates who had made broader study than the title suggests]. their fortunes under Ottonian emperors during their eastward expansion. Together with the region\u2019s bishops, Wylie, James H. History of England under Henry the Fourth. and with massive support from the Saxons in general, the 4 vols. London: Longmans Green, 1884\u201398 [still valuable, magnates confronted Henry IV in the summer of 1073 at though mostly an uncritical collection of facts]. Goslar. They demanded that the castles he had recently built should be razed, that lands unjustly confiscated John L. Kirby should be restored by the council of princes, and that the king should stay in Saxony and dismiss his low-born HENRY IV, EMPEROR (r. 1056\u20131106) advisers and instead follow the princes\u2019 advice. Henry, who had also lost the support of the south German dukes, Born on November 11, 1050, the future Emperor Henry was besieged by the Saxon army and barely escaped IV was the much longed-for son and heir of Emperor from his fortress, the Harzburg, to find protection in Henry III and Agnes of Poitou. He was baptized by the town of Worms. The Harzburg was stormed by the Archbishop Hermann of Cologne at Easter 1051. Abbot Saxons, but their army was defeated in September 1075. Hugh of Cluny, who had come specially from Burgundy By the end of the year, however, Henry seemed to have at the invitation of the emperor, lifted the baby from mastered the situation. At Christmas the nobles elected the font, thus becoming his godfather and, apparently, his son Conrad their king. also naming him. Elected king at Tribur in November 1053, Henry was crowned July 17, 1054, at Aachen and At the request of the higher clergy of Milan, who had betrothed the next year to Bertha, a girl of his own age defeated the Pataria reform movement in the spring of and daughter of the count of Turin. He was not even six 1075, Henry nominated the imperial chaplain Tedald years old when his father died on October 5, 1056, at as archbishop of Milan instead of Atto, who had the the palace of Bodfeld in the Harz mountains. support of Pope Gregory VII and the Pararia. Gregory expressed his furious opposition in a letter (December On his deathbed, Henry III had entrusted his heir 8, 1075) and in a verbal message, perhaps threatening to Pope Victor II (1055\u20131057), the former bishop of the king with excommunication. From Worms, where Eichst\u00e4tt and imperial chancellor. Victor managed to nobles and ecclesiastics met jointly in a diet on January obtain recognition of little Henry\u2019s succession to the 24, 1076, came the reply. The German bishops, who throne. Nominally, Henry IV began his reign in 1056. resented papal claims of hierocracy and centralization, The guardianship lay in the hands of his pious mother, renounced their obedience to the pontiff, whom they the Empress Agnes, until April 1063, however, when a called \u201cBrother Hildebrand,\u201d and claimed his election faction of conspirators, led by Archbishop Anno II of had been illegal; Henry IV called upon Gregory to re- Cologne, abducted the young king, who tried to save sign, and the Romans were asked to elect a new pope. himself by jumping overboard into the Rhine. Anno now The north Italian episcopate supported these measures became the leading influence at court, replacing another immediately. bishop, Adalbert of Bremen. Anno had good relations with ecclesiastical reformers in Rome and reversed an From the Lenten synod he was holding in Rome earlier imperial policy which had supported the election from February 14\u201320, 1076, Gregory deposed Henry, of Bishop Cadalus of Parma as (anti)pope Honorius III. absolved his subjects from the oath of fealty, and excom- In collaboration with Peter Damian a papal legate, Anno municated the king. Many of the bishops then deserted and the German court recognized, instead, Pope Alexan- Henry, joining forces with the Bavarian and Saxon op- der II (1061\u20131073), who had been elected by Hildebrand position. By October 1076, at the meeting of Tribur, the (the fixture Gregory VII) and other reformers. king had to accept their terms and to declare his submis- sion to the pontiff. Unless Henry was absolved from his Henry IV began to govern in his own name at age six excommunication by February 1077, the assembly of in March 1056. In July 1066 he married Bertha of Turin Tribur threatened, they would proceed with the election but tried to divorce her three years later. He desisted in of a new king. The German princes invited Gregory to face of the remonstrations of Peter Damian, who had been sent to Germany by the pope as a legate. Henry\u2019s relationship with several German nobles was tense from the beginning of the reign. His troubles increased from about 1068, when he began to try to 319","HENRY IV, EMPEROR See also Anno; Gregory VII, Pope; Henry III come as an arbitrator to a diet that was to be held at Further Reading Augsburg in February 1077. With no way out, Henry decided in mid-December 1076 to meet Gregory, who Benson, Robert L. ed. Imperial Lives and Letters of the Eleventh had already left Rome on his way to Augsburg in north- Century, trans. Theodor E. Mommsen and Karl F. Morrison. ern Italy. With his wife Bertha and his two-year-old son New York: Columbia University Press, 1962. Conrad, Henry managed to cross Mount Cernis in severe winter weather. When he learned of the king\u2019s arrival, Freed, John B. \u201cHenry IV of Germany.\u201d In Dictionary of the Gregory withdrew to the fortress of Canossa, owned by Middle Ages, vol. 6. New York: Scribner, 1985, p. 163. Countess Matilda of Tuscany. Thanks to the mediation of Henry\u2019s godfather, Abbot Hugh of Cluny, of Matilda, Fuhrman, Horst. Germany in the High Middle Ages, trans. Timo- and of Adelheid of Turin (mother of the queen), Gregory thy Reuter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. reconciled Henry IV with the Church on January 28, 1077. Henry was forced to appear barefoot and dressed Leyser, Karl. \u201cThe Crisis in Medieval Germany.\u201d In Karl Leyser, in a penitent\u2019s hair shirt for three days in a row in the Communications and Power in Medieval Europe, trans. Timo- inner courtyard of the castle requesting permission to thy Reuter. London: Hambledon, 1994, pp. 21\u201349. enter before he was absolved by the pope. Lynch, J. H. \u201cHugh I of Cluny\u2019s Sponsorship of Henry IV: Its In fact, though not in theory, when he reconciled Context and Consequences.\u201d Speculum 60 (1985): 800\u2013826. Henry with the church, Gregory again recognized Henry as king. At the Lenten synod of 1080, however, the Struve, Tilman. \u201cHeinrich IV.\u201d In Lexikon des Mittelalters, vol. pontiff recognized Rudolf of Rheinfelden, whom the 4. Munich: Artemis, 1989, pp. 2041\u20132043. German opposition had elected in March 1077 despite the absolution of Canossa, as king. Henry was once von Gladiss, Dietrich, et al., ed. Die Urkunden Heinrichs IV, pts. again excommunicated, but, this time, ineffectively. At 1\u20133. Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Diplomata 6\/1\u20133. the synod of Brixen, June 1080, Henry and the princes Hanover: Hahn, 1977, 1959, 1978. nominated Archbishop Wibert of Ravenna to replace Gregory, whom the synod then deposed. The death Wies, Erbst W. Kaiser Heinrich IV: Canossa und der Kampf um of Rudolf, and military as well as political successes, die Weltherrshaft. Munich and Esslingen: Bechtle, 1996. enabled Henry to enter Rome in March 1084 when Wibert was consecrated Pope Clement III. On Easter Uta-Renate Blumenthal Sunday, Henry IV was crowned emperor. Meanwhile, Gregory, freed by his vassals from his place of refuge, HENRY THE LION the Castello S. Angelo in Rome withdrew to Salerno, (1129\/1131\u2013August 6, 1195) where he died in May 1085. Duke of Saxony and Bavaria (Heinrich der Lowe, After his return to Germany, Henry at first was able Herzog von Sachsen und Bayern), Henry the Lion was to consolidate his position. With the death of Clement born 1129\/1131, the son of the Welf Henry the Proud III in 1100 the end of the schism in the Church seemed (Heinrich der Stolze) and Gertrude, daughter of Lothar possible. However, the negotiations between Henry III. His father died in 1139, dispossessed of all his titles IV and Pope Paschal II (1099\u20131118) always ended in in his feud with Conrad III, but the Empress Richenza, failure, since Henry refused to give up his right to invest Henry\u2019s grandmother, and Count Adolf of Holstein bishops with the ring and staff, the one demand on which secured the boy\u2019s northern inheritance. Henry was en- Paschal insisted. feoffed with Saxony in 1142. (Bavaria had already been granted to Conrad Ill\u2019s half-brother Henry of Babenberg The collapse of these negotiations with the papacy [Heinrich Jasomirgott]). Henry became a tough soldier lay behind the rebellion of Henry V against his rather in and a ruthless politician, particularly in his Saxon lands late 1104. Through a ruse, the younger Henry captured and in his relationship to the Archbishopric of Bremen, Henry IV in late 1105. At Ingelheim on December 31, and participated in the Wendish Crusade in 1147. 1105, Henry IV was forced to abdicate. He managed to flee, however, and attempted to regain power. He died Frederick I Barbarossa of Swabia, Henry\u2019s cousin, at Li\u00e8ge on August 7, 1106, eventually to be buried in became king in 1152. Henry accompanied Frederick the cathedral of Speyer. to Italy in 1154\u20131155, and, during the coronation riots in Rome, saved his cousin\u2019s life. In 1156 Frederick A contemporary, albeit anonymous, biographer most returned Bavaria to Henry, but without the East Mark, movingly bemoaned the death of the emperor, the pro- which became Austria. Frederick granted that fiefdom tector of the poor, opening with the words of Jeremiah to his uncle Henry Babenberg in the Privilegium minus 9.1: \u201cOh that my head were waters, and mine eyes a (Lesser Privilege). fountain of tears, that I might weep day and night for the slain daughter of my people.\u201d Over the next twenty years Henry supported Frederick but also expanded his own power. He founded Munich in 1157 and L\u00fcbeck in 1159, and married Mathilda of England (daughter of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine) in 1165. Henry also built the cathedral and the castle in Brunswick (Braunschweig), was in Italy twice, and went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1172. In 1176, at Chiavenna, Frederick demanded Henry\u2019s 320","support for his war with the papacy and the Italian com- HENRY V munes, but the Saxon duke refused to help without a substantial reward. Frederick\u2019s war ended in defeat, and opened England to the invasion and usurpation of Henry he had to make peace with the pope in 1177. Upon his IV. Henry V would later rebury Richard among the kings return to Germany, Frederick began legal proceedings at Westminster Abbey. against his cousin. For non-appearance at his trial, Henry was outlawed at the diet of W\u00fcrzburg in 1180. He had Young Henry was made Prince of Wales; from 1400 few allies, and an imperial army defeated him in Saxony. to 1408 he earned his spurs combating the Welsh revolt In 1181 Henry was deposed from all his possessions of Owen Glendower and the Percys. The prince played a and exiled; he and his family fled to his father-in-law, major role at the Battle of Shrewsbury in 1403. During Henry II, in England, where he remained until 1185. his father\u2019s illness (1410\u201311) Henry and his supporters Saxony was split between the Archbishop of Cologne dominated the royal council, but Henry IV feared his and the Ascanian counts of Brandenburg. Bavaria went ambition and differed with the prince over which faction to a member of the Wittelsbach family. to support as France fell into turmoil. The king removed his son from the council. The final two years of Henry When Frederick went on crusade in 1189, he exiled IV\u2019s reign were a period of tension and frustration for his cousin again; but Mathilda stayed in Brunswick, the Prince, which may explain the later stories of his where she died that year. Henry returned to Germany dissipated lifestyle. upon the news of his cousin\u2019s death. He was finally pardoned by Henry VI and spent his remaining years in Henry succeeded on 20 March 1413. He was faced Saxony. Henry the Lion died on August 6, 1195 and was with both religious and political plots that threatened the buried in the cathedral at Brunswick beside his wife. tranquility of his realm. His erstwhile friend Sir John Oldcastle, perhaps the model for Shakespeare\u2019s Falstaff, A man who fascinated his contemporaries, Henry the led a Lollard conspiracy in 1414 to kill the king and seize Lion was one of the most controversial German princes London. The conspiracy was discovered and put down, of the twelfth century. Italian historian Acerbus Morena, but Oldcastle remained at large until 1417, when he was who met him in 1163, described him as of medium taken and executed. The king remained a vigorous per- height, but strong and agile, with dark eyes and hair. secutor of Lollards. Henry, self-righteously pious, sup- Henry was arrogant and ruthless, but his dealings with ported the efforts of the Council of Constance to end the Frederick in the 1180s show that he could seriously Great Schism of the papacy, and he was a supporter of overplay his hand. elaborate public liturgy. The king joined public worship and private devotion in his monastic foundations, a form Some historians have celebrated him as the champion of piety long out of fashion with monarchs. The palace of nationalism and the expansion eastward, while others at Sheen was to be restored, almost in anticipation of have chided him for deserting Frederick I at a crucial the Escorial (in Spain, by Charles V), with a Carthusian time in the empire\u2019s history. It is perhaps time to lay the house and a house of Brigettine nuns. old controversies to rest. On the political front Henry V was faced in 1415 See also Frederick I Barbarossa; Matilda, Empress with a plot led by the earl of Cambridge, Lord Scrope, and Sir Thomas Grey to eliminate the Lancastrian dy- Further Reading nasty and declare the earl of March as the legitimate heir of Richard II. March revealed the plot to the king Jordan, Karl. Henry the Lion, trans. P. S. Falla. Oxford: Clar- as Henry was preparing to invade France. The leaders endon, 1986. were executed, and Henry, his domestic enemies all in flight, was free to pursue foreign ambitions. Luckhardt, Jochen, and Franz Niehoff, ed. Heinrich der L\u00f6we und seine Zeit: Herrschaft und Repr\u00e4sentation der Welfen Ignoring his questionable title to the English throne 1125\u20131235. 3 vols. Munich: Hirmer, 1995. and sure of his right, Henry V revived Edward III\u2019s claim to the French crown, and it is with his French conquests Mohrmann, Wolf-Dieter, ed. Heinrich der L\u00f6we. G\u00f6ttingen: that Henry is forever identified. France was torn by strife Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 1980. between the aristocratic factions of Armagnacs and Bur- gundians under the mentally ill Charles VI. Henry led Madelyn Bergen Dick a plundering expedition to Normandy in August 1415. The English captured Harfleur and then marched toward HENRY V (1387\u20131422; r. 1413\u201322) Calais. On 15 October they were overtaken by a vastly superior French army at Agincourt. Henry proved an The popular and Shakespearean hero-king par excel- inspirational leader who skillfully deployed his archers lence, although liberal historians have been less im- to win a stunning victory that encouraged English ambi- pressed with his militarism and religious intolerance. tion and a desire for French wealth and ransoms. Born in 1387 to the future Henry IV and Mary de Bohun, he was too young to be involved in the political intrigues Henry returned to Normandy with a second expedi- of Richard II\u2019s reign. Richard took him to Ireland in tion in 1417, bent now upon a genuine conquest. When 1399 and knighted him during this expedition, which 321","HENRY V songs that appear in medieval collections of Minnesang (courtly love poetry). His father granted Henry the belt the Armagnacs murdered the duke of Burgundy in 1419, of knighthood at the famous tournament at Mainz dur- the new duke, Philip the Good, allied with Henry. Care- ing Pentecost 1184. By that autumn, Henry had become ful diplomacy and continued military pressure forced betrothed to Constance, eleven years his senior and the Charles VI to agree to the Treaty of Troyes, 21 May aunt of King William II of Sicily. During Barbarossa\u2019s 1420. Under its terms Charles disinherited his son (the disputes with Pope Urban III, Henry successfully con- future Charles VII) in favor of Henry V, who became ducted military campaigns against the papal states; but regent of France and married Charles\u2019s daughter, Cath- Urban\u2019s successor, Clement III, promised to crown him erine of Valois. emperor. Henry took over the regency while Barbarossa went off upon the third Crusade in the spring of 1189. France south of the Loire remained defiant and unconquered. With the vital support of his Burgundian When Barbarossa died in July 1190, Henry should allies Henry pursued his conquests against the disinher- have quietly succeeded to his father\u2019s inheritance. But ited dauphin and his Armagnac allies. During the course several obstacles soon arose. For example, the Welf of the campaign Henry contracted dysentery; he died Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, had returned from exile at Bois de Vincennes on 31 August 1422, not yet 35 in England and defied the royal armies by reclaiming years of age. Charles VI outlived him by two months. his old power in the north. The sudden death of King Under the terms of the Treaty of Troyes the crowns of William II of Sicily in November had, in Henry\u2019s view, England and France passed to Henry V\u2019s infant son, left his wife Constance as the heir to that rich kingdom. Henry VI, who grew up to be an incompetent and hope- When the Sicilians, with papal cooperation, elected less weakling. William\u2019s illegitimate cousin, Count Tancred of Lecce, as king, Henry resolved to attack that kingdom after be- Henry V\u2019s dream of a French conquest was lost by ing crowned emperor in Rome. Finally, after coming to 1453, and he has been condemned by historians for a truce with the Welfs and turning to Italy, Henry found squandering England\u2019s resources in an unattainable that Pope Celestine III had replaced Clement. quest for foreign glory. Yet to contemporaries he was an heroic figure. A cunning propagandist and diplomat, Meanwhile, the city leaders of Rome had been pres- a skillful and ruthless general, and\u2014as historians are suring the pope to destroy Tusculum, a city which had discovering\u2014a just and careful administrator, he can been loyal to and garrisoned by the Staufen, but which be faulted for dying inopportunely. the Romans considered a rival. The aged pope-elect demanded that the king abandon Tusculum before any See also Henry IV; Philip the Good; Richard II imperial coronation. With Tusculum torn down stone by stone, the Romans gladly cheered the papal consecra- Further Reading tion of Celestine on Easter Sunday, April 14, and the imperial coronation of Henry on Easter Monday. The Allmand, C.T. Henry V. Berkeley: University of California Press, new emperor then turned to the conquest of Southern 1992. Italy and Sicily. But, after a few successes, he failed at a siege of Naples, largely because of the summer heat Harriss, G.L., ed. Henry V: The Practice of Kingship. Oxford: and the effects of diseases like dysentery, cholera, and Oxford University Press, 1985. malaria on his troops. Although Henry survived a bout with sickness, many others died, and the army retreated Kingsford, Charles L., ed. The First English Life of King Henry northward. Meanwhile, the Empress Constance briefly the Fifth. Oxford: Clarendon, 1911. became a prisoner of Tancred, king of Sicily. Labarge, Margaret Wade. Henry V: The Cautious Conqueror. Back in Germany, Henry faced new problems, es- London: Seeker & Warburg, 1975. pecially as he tried to solve a quarrel over the see of Li\u00e8ge by naming his own candidate. Another candidate, McFarlane, K.B. Lancastrian Kings and Lollard Knights. Oxford: Albert of Louvain, brother of the Duke of Brabant, Clarendon, 1972 [for the view of Henry as the \u201cgreatest man had the backing of Pope Celestine, however, and was that ever ruled England\u201d]. consecrated bishop. Five days later, German knights murdered him, and many blamed Henry for instigat- Taylor, Frank, and John S. Roskell, eds. and trans. Gesta Henrici ing the deed. Encouraged by the Welfs and the papacy, Quinti: The Deeds of Henry the Fifth. Oxford: Clarendon, widespread opposition to Henry began to organize itself 1975. into open rebellion. Wylie, James H., and W.T. Waugh. The Reign of Henry the Fifth. At this juncture, Henry was rescued by the capture 3 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1914\u201329. of the English king, Richard the Lionhearted, who was returning from a Crusade in December 1192. Henry James L. Gillespie HENRY VI (1165\u20131197) At the tender age of three, Henry VI Staufen was already an elected and crowned king. His father, Emperor Fred- erick I Barbarossa, not only had him participate in the imperial government, but even tried to get him elected co-emperor. Scholars, such as Godfrey of Viterbo, pro- vided the young king\u2019s education, according to several 322","forced Richard\u2019s captor, Duke Leopold V of Austria, HENRY VII OF LUXEMBOURG to turn the king over to imperial control; he then de- manded a huge ransom for Richard\u2019s freedom. By the Back in Sicily during the spring of 1197, Henry time Richard was released in February 1194, Henry had barely escaped an attempted assassination, plotted prob- extorted 150,000 marks, which he divided with Leopold, ably with the tacit knowledge of the pope and Henry\u2019s as well as Richard\u2019s pledge of England as a fief of the own wife. Henry crushed the rebellion, executing some empire with a yearly tribute of five thousand marks. of the rebels in a brutal fashion. At the beginning of Although the promised payments were never entirely September, the main Crusader fleet set off for the Holy realized, Henry used the large ransom to finance his Land, where they gained promising victories. Later that invasion of Sicily. month however, the emperor was taken seriously ill. He died at the age of only thirty-one on September 28, His efforts were aided by the death of Tancred in 1197, in Palermo. Revolts in Sicily and Italy and civil February 1194, leaving only an infant son as heir, war in Germany over control of the crown soon gravely and Henry and his armies quickly conquered Sicily. weakened the monarchy. On Christmas day 1194 he celebrated his kingship in the cathedral in Palermo. The next day, in Jesi on the Both contemporary and historical opinion on Henry mainland, Henry\u2019s wife gave birth to his own son and has been severely divided between those who viewed heir, the future Frederick II. his death as a blessing or as a curse. His critics worry he might have established world dominion had he lived Through ruthless policies, Henry quickly secured long enough; his advocates note the breakdown of his rule in Sicily. An alleged plot against him gave the German imperial authority after his death. Certainly, emperor an excuse to banish the usurper\u2019s family to his death provided the opportunity for Innocent III to Germany, and, allegedly, in Byzantine fashion, to blind seize the leadership of Christendom. Overshadowed by the infant former king as well as some officials. The the reputations of his father and son, Henry VI\u2019s short Sicilian treasury was carried to Henry\u2019s castle, Trifels, reign is nonetheless remarkable both for it successes in Swabia by more than 150 pack animals. By Easter and its flaws. 1195 the emperor had proclaimed his wife as regent for the Sicilian lands and set one of his powerful ministe- See also Frederick I Barbarossa; Frederick II; rials in place as viceroy; arranged the betrothal of his Godfrey of Viterbo brother, Philip of Swabia, to Tancred\u2019s widow, Irene, a Byzantine princess; installed Philip as margrave of Further Reading Tuscany (including the oft-disputed Mathildine lands); and begun to proclaim and organize a Crusade to the Csendes, Peter. Heinrich VI. Darmstadt: Wissenschafttiche Bu- Holy Land. chgesellschaft, 1993. Returning to Germany, Henry convinced many other Naumann, Claudia. Der Kreuzzug Kaiser Heinrichs VI. Frankfurt princes to participate in the Crusade. He also nearly am Main: Lang, 1994. managed to get his young son recognized as king of the Romans by right of inheritance instead of by election. Pavlac, Brian A. \u201cEmperor Henry VI (1191\u201397) and the Pa- Henry suggested what is known as the Erbreichsplan, pacy: Influences on Innocent III\u2019s Staufen Policies.\u201d In Pope a, proposal to ensure that the royal, and hence imperial, Innocent III and His World, ed. John C. Moore. London: title would be inherited in the Staufen dynasty. In return, Ashgate, 1998. for secular princes, Henry promised to make fiefs held by the crown inheritable in the female line; for spiritual Seltmann, Ingeborg. Heinrich VI: Herrschaftspraxis und Umge- princes, he promised not to practice the spolia, a king\u2019s bung. Erlangen: Palm & Enke, 1983. exploitation of the temporal powers and royal rights during a vacancy. At first, most of the princes accepted Toeche, Theodor. Heinrich VI. Jahrb\u00fccher der deutschen Ge- the plan, but, when Henry returned to Italy, they began schichte 18. Leipzig, 1867; rpt. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche to express their dissatisfaction. Even more, the Roman Buchgesellschaft, 1965. Curia opposed both the idea of uniting the crown of the Holy Roman Empire with that of Sicily and of giving Brian A. Pavlac up papal prerogatives in the imperial coronation pro- cess. By November 1196 Henry offered the pope what HENRY VII OF LUXEMBOURG he claimed was more than any other emperor had ever (c. 1275\u20131313) done, the so-called h\u00f6chstes Angebot (highest offer). But by the end of the year, Henry had given up on the Henry of Luxembourg was the son and heir of Count inheritance plan, and the princes elected his son as king Henry III of Luxembourg (d. 1288). Young Henry was the old-fashioned way. raised at the French court and spoke French as his native tongue. In 1292, he married Margaret, daughter of the duke of Brabant. As count, Henry he was noted for his effective rule, especially as peacekeeper in local feudal disputes. After Albert, king of the Romans, was assas- sinated on 1 May 1308, Henry was elected unanimously in Frankfurt on 27 November 1308. He was crowned on 6 January 1309 in Aachen. 323","HENRY VII OF LUXEMBOURG with the Ghibelline Matteo Visconti. On 6 January 1311, Henry was crowned king of the Lombards; the dismayed Within weeks of his coronation Henry began prepara- Tuscan Guelfs avoided attending the ceremony. The tions for his Romzug, the journey to Rome for coronation Milanese offered Henry a \u201cgift\u201d of 100,000 florins; and as emperor. Although several of his predecessors had Henry, taking 100 young noblemen as a bodyguard (and avoided it, Henry felt a need to gain the prestige that hostages), left Milan on 14 February. the Germans associated with the imperial title, given his own dynastic obscurity and the concessions he had made On 10 January, Henry had made his brother-in-law, to be elected. He also wanted to reassert the imperial Amadeus of Savoy, vicar-general of Lombardy, to act presence in Italy, which, although practically semi-au- as fiscal, judicial, and military agent of the king. This tonomous, was legally subject to the emperor. arrangement would cost the cities some 300,000 florins per year. By February, Guelf forces reacted. On 12 In July 1309, Henry assured Pope Clement V, who February, the della Torre faction revolted in Milan and was resident in Avignon, that he would observe and were put down with moderation. Later in the month defend the rights and privileges of the cities of the papal Brescia, Crema, Cremona, and Reggio expelled both states and would embark, as emperor, on a crusade. In their Ghibellines and their imperial vicars. Again, Henry return, the pope formally supported Henry\u2019s journey. responded moderately, but the rebels resisted and holed During the spring of 1310, royal emissaries traveled up in Cremona. Many of them submitted to Henry on through Lombardy and Tuscany to prepare the cities for 26 April, but he took revenge by destroying the city Henry\u2019s arrival. In early November 1310, Henry arrived gates and walls and the rebels\u2019 houses, imposing fines, in Turin accompanied by some 5,000 men, including 500 and withdrawing civic rights and privileges. Resistance cavalry. Henry would never cross the Alps again. stiffened, and by 19 May Henry\u2019s army was besieging Brescia. Despite plague and desertion, it remained in Northern Italy was fragmented into nearly indepen- place for four months and broke the resistance. Harsh dent city-states that often suffered from deep social and reprisals, but no death penalties, followed. political divisions. Guelfs and Ghibellines fought openly in cities, often making bitter, potent exiles of the los- Henry moved on to Genoa, arriving on 21 October. ers. Urban nobles had long clashed with the non-noble Town leaders and the king carried out long negotiations classes over interests and political power bases, and in over regalian rights in the countryside, most of which many cities strong leaders emerged as one-man rulers, Henry retained or regained. Between October 1311 and or signori. For decades, cities had created and followed mid-February 1312, when Henry left for Pisa, Guelfs in their own laws and policies, controlled their hinterlands, Lodi, Reggio, Cremona, Piacenza, Parma, Pavia, Padua, and maintained delicate intercity relations by custom and Brescia rebelled against their imperial governments. and compromise without reference to imperial interests. Since Florence was the key supporter of the revolts, Although Henry had been a successful politician and Henry declared all Florentines rebels and released their lord north of the Alps, his ignorance of Italian institu- debtors of their debts. Revolts in Brescia, Lodi, and Pia- tions, politics, and recent history would prove fatal to cenza were quelled, but in April both Asti and Treviso him in Italy. With the best intentions\u2014he wanted to be rebelled. Pisa welcomed Henry on 6 March, and while an impartial conciliator and peacemaker\u2014he would up- he waited for reinforcements he wisely refrained from set these complicated relationships by consciously sup- interfering in Pisan affairs. porting Ghibellines and nobles, deposing old signori and imposing new ones, pressing imperial claims to what By 7 May, Henry\u2019s force was outside Rome, now had become communal lands and rights, and replacing controlled by Angevin Guelfs from Naples. Henry\u2019s communal statutes with imperial laws. long-delayed coronation was delayed further by military resistance in Rome. Despite a major victory on 26 May, As early as March 1310, Tuscan cities led by Florence Henry could not capture Saint Peter\u2019s, so the pope\u2019s and Bologna created a Guelf defensive league, nomi- reluctant representatives crowned Henry in Saint John nally under the patronage of the pope and the Angevin Lateran (29 June 1312). The new emperor now turned King Robert of Naples. The league wanted guarantees against Tuscany to punish Florence. In mid-September against imperial interference in communal affairs; in Henry\u2019s siege began, with 15,000 men and 2,000 cavalry return, the league would support Henry with cash and against the Florentines\u2019 60,000 men and 4,000 knights. troops. Early in his campaign, Henry confirmed the The operation was unsuccessful, though it lasted six Guelfs\u2019 fears. Between 11 November and 11 Decem- weeks. ber he radically interfered in the affairs of the town of Asti\u2014reorganizing political offices, releasing officials, On 10 March 1313, Henry reentered faithful Pisa. and retrying criminals. As Henry marched toward Milan, His patience long since exhausted, the emperor con- the Guelf signore Guido della Torre refused to give up demned all inhabitants of rebellious cities to be captured, his palace or his personal mercenary guard. Guido\u2019s stripped, and hanged. Papal interests were also threat- defiance remained peaceful, however, and on 23 De- ened as Henry condemned Bologna, for example, and cember Henry entered Milan. He soon replaced Guido 324","declared the papal vassal Robert of Naples guilty of l\u00e8se- HENRYSON, ROBERT majest\u00e9 for having opposed the coronation and having interfered in Rome. Publicists revived papal and imperial Scots literature was not great, and he was so obscure claims to universal authority, and a lively scholarly de- to English readers that his Testament was included in bate\u2014which involved Dante (in Monarchia)\u2014ensued. editions of Chaucer throughout the 16th century as the Henry also prepared to invade Naples, and on 8 August conclusion to Troilus and Criseyde. Its true authorship 1313 he left Pisa for Siena and points south. He died of was not recognized in print until Urry\u2019s edition of malaria while besieging Guelf Siena on 24 August, and Chaucer in 1721. was buried in the baptistery of Pisa. As is also true for Dunbar, Henryson\u2019s short poems See also Clement V, Pope; Dante Alighieri; are written in various genres and meters, which he Robert of Anjou handles with skill. They range from \u201cSum Practysis of Medecyne,\u201d an extravagant, and often gross, rhymed Further Reading alliterative burlesque of quack prescriptions (supporting the belief of some that Henryson had studied medicine), Bowsky, William. Henry VII in Italy. Lincoln: University of to the devout lyricism of \u201cThe Annunciation.\u201d Most of Nebraska Press, 1960. the short poems deal with serious Christian themes, es- pecially the uncertainties of this world. \u201cThe Ressoning Joseph P. Byrne betuix Aige andYowth\u201d and \u201cThe Ressoning betuix Deth and Man\u201d are vigorous memento mori debates about the HENRYSON, ROBERT (ca. 1425\/35\u20131505) inevitable passing of earthly joy, which is also the sub- ject of three powerful meditations: \u201cThe Praise of Age,\u201d Scottish poet. Although Robert Henryson was perhaps \u201cThe Thre Deid Pollis,\u201d and \u201cThe Abbey Walk.\u201d Amore the greatest poet writing in English during the 15th humorous treatment of temporality is found in the superb century (his dialect was Middle Scots), little is known and original pastourelle \u201cRobene and Makyne,\u201d in which about his life. The only sure information is Dunbar\u2019s a shepherd returns a maidens love too late. \u201cThe Bludy brief reference in \u201cTimor Mortis Conturbat Me,\u201d amid Serk\u201d and \u201cThe Garmont of Gud Ladeis\u201d are chivalric mention of other dead Scots writers, to a \u201cMaister Robert moral allegories in ballad stanzas, more vividly told Henrisoun\u201d of Dunfermline. The name is a common one, than their probable sources. The metrically complex but a Master Robert Henryson, who may be the poet, \u201cAne Prayer for the Pest\u201d is a more topical poem whose is listed at the University of Glasgow in 1462 and as a sense of human powerlessness before the divine is also witness to three deeds in Dunfermline during 1477\u201378. found in the poet\u2019s longer works. Like \u201cSum Pracrysis Many early manuscripts and prints refer to him as school- of Medecyne\u201d \u201cAgainst Hasty Credence\u201d is fierce social master at Dunfermline, an important royal and monastic satire (against flatterers) that may derive from Lydgate. town. In unpublished notes to his 17th-century Latin Another secular satire, \u201cThe Want of Wyse Men,\u201d is translation of Henryson\u2019s Testament (and Chaucer\u2019s probably not by Henryson. Troilus) Sir Francis Kynaston tells a humorous if dubi- ous anecdote about the poet\u2019s death, though he also The least well regarded of Henryson\u2019s major works is perceptively notes his wit, learning, and literary skill. It Orpheus and Eurydice, a 414-line narrative in rime royal seems likely that Henryson was born about 1425, though (with Orpheus\u2019s complaint in ten-line stanzas) followed some would say a decade later; from Dunbar\u2019s poem we by a 218-line moralitas, or moral, in heroic couplets. The know he must have been dead by 1505. Perhaps a notary poem tells the familiar story of how Orpheus\u2019s beloved as well as a schoolmaster, Henryson does not seem to wife, Eurydice, fleeing the attempted rape by Aristaeus, have held ecclesiastical office. was bitten by a serpent and taken to Hades, where she was finally discovered by her grief-stricken husband. The three major works in the canon\u2014the Fables, By his harp playing Orpheus made the infernal gods Testament of Cresseid, and Orpheus and Eurydice\u2014are promise that she could leave with him, on condition undoubtedly by Henryson, though we have no sure idea that he not look back. Moved by affection, he did so of their dates or order of composition. Some of the dozen look on the return journey and so lost her forever. The or so short poems usually attributed to him are more moralitas identifies Orpheus as the intellectual part of doubtful. The textual tradition of Henryson\u2019s poetry is the soul, Eurydice as the affectionate part, and Aristaeus almost as uncertain as his biography. Most of the works as virtue. are found in witnesses that date from at least 75 years after the presumed time of his death. Moreover the The narrative in Orpheus and Eurydice is based on printed editions of his works (many of which have been Boethius\u2019s Consolation of Philosophy (book 3, meter lost or exist only in unique copies) are generally more 12), whereas the moralitas and some of the narrative authoritative than the surviving manuscripts, which were details are based on Nicholas Trevet\u2019s commentary on often copied from prints. Henryson\u2019s influence on later the Consolation, itself derived from the commentary of William of Conches. The poem reveals Henryson\u2019s interest in human limitation, his poetic skill (especially 325","HENRYSON, ROBERT consists of a prologue and thirteen beast fables, each with a narrative followed by a moralitas, for a total of in Orpheus\u2019s complaint), and perhaps even his allegori- 2,975 lines, mostly in rime royal stanzas. Beast fables cal audacity (as in his not unprecedented identification in the Middle Ages were not only elementary school of the rapist with virtue). Very different from the ME texts but also an important literary genre. The source romance Sir Orfeo, Henryson\u2019s poem is a learned, rhe- for Henryson\u2019s prologue and seven of the fables is the torically sophisticated allegory that is also a defense of popular 12th-century Latin Romulus collection now at- poetry. Like Boethius Henryson allows no explicitly tributed to Walter the Englishman. Henryson also drew Christian reference in this deeply Christian work. on Chaucer\u2019s Nun\u2019s Priest\u2019s Tale for \u201cThe Cock and the Fox\u201d and, directly or indirectly, on Petrus Alfonsi for The Testament of Cresseid, 79 rime royal stanzas \u201cThe Fox, the Wolf, and the Husbandman.\u201d For some plus Cresseid\u2019s complaint in seven nine-line stanzas, of the other tales he may have used other Latin fable is Henryson\u2019s acknowledged masterpiece. On a cold collections, some version of the Roman de Renart, night in Lent the poet reads Chaucer\u2019s account of Cres- Lydgate\u2019s fables, Caxton\u2019s Reynard and Aesop, and the seid before turning to another book about her wretched French Isopets, though specific borrowings are much end. Having become a prostitute after her rejection by debated. Diomede, Cresseid is then punished with leprosy by the planetary gods for her blasphemy in blaming her mis- Older critics saw the Fables as examples of social fortune on Venus and Cupid. As she is begging one day realism or rustic humor, but, without denying the po- with other lepers, Cresseid encounters Troilus. Though litical seriousness of these works or their insight into neither recognizes the other, Troilus gives her alms in Scottish life, critics have increasingly appreciated their memory of his lost love. After learning the identity of strictly literary achievement in recent years. The order her benefactor Cresseid praises Troilus, blames only of the fables seems carefully designed, and the wit of herself for what happened, makes her final testament, \u201cThe Cock and the Fox\u201d at moments surpasses even and dies. its Chaucerian model. The prologue is a sophisticated discussion of the complex relationship between story Although the Testament is strikingly original, it and lesson, which is then demonstrated in the fables obviously draws on Troilus and Criseyde, as well as themselves. Henryson\u2019s moralities are not dull or duti- on other Chaucerian poems. The formal descriptions ful but have an intricate, often ironic, connection with of the planetary gods are based on traditional informa- the preceding narratives and constantly challenge the tion, though the specific influence of Chaucer, Lydgate, reader. The pessimism with which the natural world is Boccaccio, and the mythography of Pseudo-Albricus has portrayed in the fables is less a questioning of divine been claimed. The relationship of the Testament to the justice than a passionate statement of our need for God\u2019s somewhat similar story in the Spektakle of Luf (1492) mercy. Henryson the man remains a mysterious figure, is unclear. The poem reveals a detailed knowledge of but his poetry, which is still too often treated as primarily medicine (in the account of Cresseid\u2019s leprosy), law, and regional, is the most substantial work in English verse meteorology. Henryson brilliantly adapts a number of between Chaucer and Spenser. literary topoi to his own purposes, including a seasonal opening, citation of a famous source, trial scene, com- See also Boccaccio, Giovanni; Chaucer, Geoffrey; plaint, and testament. Douglas, Gavin; Dunbar, William; Lydgate, John In part because its tone and structure are so deliber- Further Reading ately different the Testament is the worthiest successor to Troilus and Criseyde. Henryson not only understands Primary Sources but is also able to reproduce such diverse Chaucerian achievements as consistent but developing character- Bawcutt, P., and Felicity Riddy, eds. Selected Poems of Henryson ization, a believable pagan setting, deliberately obtuse and Dunbar. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1992. narration, and rime royal (in contrast to the metrical ineptness of the English Chaucerians). Henryson is also Fox, Denton, ed. The Poems of Robert Henryson. Oxford: Clar- virtually alone with Chaucer in his sympathy for Cres- endon, 1981. seid. Although some modern critics judge the Testament to be pessimistic or unforgiving, Henryson\u2019s Cresseid, Secondary Sources for all her physical suffering, grows throughout the poem until, though still a pagan, she fully accepts re- New CBEL 1:658\u201360. sponsibility for her own actions. Because the Testament Manual 4:965\u201388, 1137\u201380. was printed as the conclusion to Troilus beginning with Gray, Douglas. Robert Henryson. Leiden: Brill, 1979. Thynne\u2019s 1532 edition of Chaucer, most English Renais- Gros Louis, Kenneth R.R. \u201cRobert Henryson\u2019s Orpheus and sance portraits of Cresseid (including Shakespeare\u2019s) depend as much on Henryson as on Chaucer. Eurydice and the Orpheus Traditions of the Middle Ages.\u201d Speculum 41 (1966): 643\u201355. Henryson\u2019s most complex work is the Fables, which Jamieson, I.W.A. \u201cThe Minor Poems of Robert Henryson.\u201d Stud- ies in Scottish Literature 9 (1971): 125\u201347. Kindrick, Robert. Robert Henryson. Boston: Twayne, 1979. 326","Scheps, Walter, and J. Anna Looney. Middle Scots Poets: A HERRAND VON HOHENBURG Reference Guide. Boston: Hall, 1986, pp. 53\u2013117. Spearing, A.C. \u201cThe Testament of Cresseid and the \u2018High Concise God] in the Soul), as a Programmschrift (treatise) of Style.\u2019\u201d Speculum 37 (1962): 208\u201325. Repr. in Criticism and Meister Eckhart and mysticism, exists in two Swabian Medieval Poetry,. 2d ed. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1972, manuscripts in Augsburg and is integrated into the pp. 157\u201392. Heiligenleben, in three parts after Barbara, Lucia, and Yeager, R.F., ed. Fifteenth-Century Studies: Recent Essays. Ham- Thomas. den: Archon, 1984, pp. 65\u201392, 215\u201335, 275\u201381 [bibliographic and interpretive essays on Henryson]. Of the ten manuscripts of the Heiligenleben, only the Heidelberg codex is complete. The illustrated Salem C. David Benson codex is in fragments, the Darmst\u00e4dter Legendar is a reworking, and the others are selections of one of three HERMANN VON FRITZLAR legendary, either very early (manuscripts in Trier and (ca. 1275\u2013ca. 1350) Halberstadt) or later (Berlin, G\u00f6ttingen, and Dessau). In the Darmst\u00e4dter Legendar of 1420, seventy-one legends Hermann von Fritzlar is known as a hagiologist (chroni- are the same as in the Heiligenleben, but only thirteen cler of saints), who wrote the first prose legendary in are exact copies. Of the learned sermons, only Antonius German, the Heiligenleben (Lives of the Saints), in was retained. The saints\u2019 legends were sorted into four 1443\/1449. He is also the author of mystical sermons, thematic groups: male, female (mostly martyrs), and the tractates, and similar pieces, which he composed be- rest following the church calendar in two groups. The fore the Heiligenleben and partially integrated into the Heiligenleben of Hermann von Fritzlar also served as legendary. a partial source for new verse legends of the fifteenth century: Katharina (manuscript in Bielefeld), Dorothea The Heiligenleben also includes the Bartholom\u00e4us (Brussels, originally from Braunschweig), and the so- sermon by Eckhart Rube from the anonymous Domini- called Alexius K. can collection of sermons Paradisus anime intelligentis (in two manuscripts from Erfurt) with the saint\u2019s life Further Reading added at the end. From the Postille of the Dominican Heinrich von Erfurt (in six manuscripts) the legendary Jefferis, Sibylle. \u201cDie \u00dcberlieferung und Rezeption des Hei- incorporated ten sermons from the Christmas cycle. Two ligenlebens Hermanns von Fritzlar, einschlie\u00dflich des other sermons were borrowed: from Gerhard von Stern- niederdeutschen Alexius.\u201d In Mittelalterliche Literatur im gassen, a Dominican, Antonius; and from Hermann von niederdeutschen Raum (Tagung Braunschweig 1996), ed. Schildesche, an Augustinian, the Heiligkreuzauffindung Hans-Joachim Behr. Jahrbuch der Oswald-von-Wolkenstein- (Finding the Holy Cross). Besides these thirteen ser- Gesellschaft 10 (1998): 191\u2013209. mons by master preachers, which all fit into the church calendar of the Heiligenleben, starting with Advent, the Morvay, Karin and Dagmar Grube. Bibliographie der deutschen remaining seventy-five feast days are devoted to saints\u2019 Predigt des Mittelalters: Ver\u00f6ffentlichte Predigten, ed. legends, which Hermann von Fritzlar composed using Kurt Ruh. Munich: Beck, 1974, pp. 102\u2013110, 119\u2013123, collections such as the Legenda aurea, the Passional, 123\u2013125. the V\u00e4terbuch, and the M\u00e4rtyrerbuch as sources. Steer, Georg. \u201cGeistliche Prosa.\u201d In Die deutsche Literatur im In the prologue to the Heiligenleben, Hermann von sp\u00e4ten Mittelalter 1250\u20131370, ed. Ingeborg Glier. Munich: Fritzlar writes an exemplum about a secret \u201cfriend of Beck, 1987, pt. 2, pp. 306\u2013307. God\u201d (Gottesfreund), achieving a Unto mystica (mysti- cal union). At the center of his philosophy (and religion) Wagner, Bettina. \u201cDie Darmst\u00e4dter Handschrift 1886: Ein is the belief that \u201cGod is born in the soul.\u201d He expands deutsches Prosalegendar des sp\u00e4ten Mittelalters.\u201d Bibliothek on this theme in the Annunciation of Mary, noting that und Wissenschaft 21. (1987): 1\u201337. he purposely started the legendary in the last week of March, when the Annunciation of Mary, was celebrated, Werner, Wilfried and Kurt Ruh. \u201cHermann von Fritzlar.\u201d In Die as if to be in the right spirit to write this mystical work. In deutsche Literatur des Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon, ed. Kurt the sermon on the Annunciation (Maria Verk\u00fcndigung), Ruh, et al., vol. 3, coll. 1055\u20131059. Berlin and New York: de he mentions his other work, the tractate Die Blume der Gruyter, 1981. Schauung (The Blossom of the Vision), which he had published anonymously, and in which he had written Sibylle Jefferis more about this topic than on all other central Christian teachings. Three later manuscripts exist of Die Blume HERRAD VON HOHENBURG der Schauung, in N\u00fcrnberg, K\u00f6ln and Gent. (fl. late 12th c.) Another treatise on the same topic of Geburt des The abbess Herrad of the Augustinian convent Hohen- Wortes (Gottes) in der Seele (The Birth of the Word [of burg (Landsberg), today, Sainte-Odile, near Strasbourg, whose name appears in documents between 1178 and 1196, is famous for her monumental compilation Hortus deliciarum (Garden of Delights). This encyclopedic work of 324 folio pages contains some sixty poems by various medieval Latin poets, such as Hildebert of Lavardin, Petrus Pictor, and Walther of Ch\u00e2tillon, a 327","HERRAD VON HOHENBURG His literary oeuvre comprises three extant courtly love songs and four short narratives (maere). The songs number of songs with their musical notations, various are contained in the famous Heidelberg manuscript prose texts excerpted from the Bible, biblical commen- named for the family which commissioned the collec- taries, historical chronicles, church laws, the liturgy, and tion of love songs, or minnesang (University Library, scholarly studies. Philosophical and legal statements by no. cpg 848, the \u201cManesse Codex\u201d). On fol. 201rv, is Peter Lombard and scientific observations by Isidor of a miniature of the poet with an incorrect coat of arms. Seville are also extensively copied in the Hortus, often The narratives are also contained in another famous accompanied by German glosses. manuscript in Vienna (National Library, no. Ser. Nov. 2663), the Ambraser Heldenbuch (Book of heroes from The manuscript was richly illuminated and is nearly Ambras [Castle]), fol. 217ra\u2013220va. unparalleled in medieval book production. The 153 miniatures, often taking up a whole page, illustrate the Herrand\u2019s songs are considered largely conventional meanings of biblical texts, aspects of Christian belief, in nature, but his short narratives show him to be a lead- and the arts. In many respects the Hortus served as an ing writer in this genre\u2019s \u201cpost-Stricker\u201d phase. The texts encyclopedia, structured by the principles of the divine all seem to deal with constancy and loyalty, arranged in plan for the salvation of mankind. contrasting pairs. The first pair, Die treue Gattin (The Faithful Wife) and Der betrogene Gatte (The Betrayed Although the original manuscript burned in a fire Husband), present, respectively, a wife moved by in the Strasbourg library in 1870, older copies and such intense love and devotion that she disfigures her descriptions provide a good idea of the splendor and face to match her old and injured ugly husband and a learnedness of the Hortus. The abbess Herrad initiated young wife who tries to deceive her old husband with and supervised the production of the manuscript, which a younger lover. was to instruct the women in the convent on how to reach paradise through a virtuous life on earth. Many leading The second pair of stories, Der nackte Kaiser (The twelfth-century scholars, such as Honorius Augustodu- Naked Emperor) and Die Katze (The Cat), deals with, nensis, Rupert of Deutz, and Peter Comestor, are well first, the obligation of the ruler to carry out his duties represented in the Hortus. conscientiously\u2014the negligent Emperor Gorn\u00e4us, cast down in a lowly position and replaced by an angel, Apart from her considerable editorial work, Herrad must witness the latter\u2019s exemplary success until he also contributed to the significant expansion of her acknowledges his former errors and be reinstated by convent in political and economic terms. his Doppelganger\u2014and, then, the vassal\u2019s obligation to remain faithful to his overlord\u2014a dissatisfied tom cat Further Reading does the rounds among a series of incongruous partners only to return in the end to his cat queen. In a time of Bertau, Karl. Deutsche Literatur im europ\u00e4ischen Mittelalter, great political upheaval, after the deaths of the last vol. 1. Munich: Beck, 1972, pp. 585\u2013590. Babenberg Duke of Austria (1246) and the last Staufen Emperor (1250), these apparently generalized political Curschmann, Michael. \u201cTexte \u2014 Bilder \u2014 Strukturen: Der hortus admonitions must have been particularly pointed. These deliciarum, und die fr\u00fchmittelhoch-deutsche Geistlichendich- four distinct narratives document their author\u2019s literary tung.\u201d Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift f\u00fcr Literaturwissenschaft modernity, whereas the content of these narratives points und Geistesgeschichte 55 (1981): 379\u2013418. to a conservative stance by the author and a dialectic possibly aimed at the \u201cclassless\u201d didacticism of Der Green, Rosalie, et al. Herrad of Hohenburg, Hortus deliciarum. Stricker. There is evidence that Herrand\u2019s work was 2 vols. London and Leiden: 1979. known outside Styrian aristocratic circles. Saxl, F. \u201cIllustrated Medieval Encyclopaedias.\u201d In Saxl, Fritz. See also Stricker, Der; Ulrich von Liechtenstein Lectures. London: Warburg, 1957, vol. 1, pp. 228\u2013254; vol. 2, figures 169\u2013174. Further Reading Albrecht Classen Curschmann, Michael. \u201cHerrand von Wildonie (Wildon).\u201d In Die deutsche Literatur des Mittelalters. Verfasserlexikon, ed. Kurt HERRAND VON WILDONIE Ruh, et al., vol. 3. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter, 1981, (ca. 1230\u20131278\/1282) cols. 1144\u20131147. A Middle High German author of songs and narratives, Deighton, Alan. \u201cDie \u2018nichtpolitischen\u2019 Erz\u00e4hlungen Herrands Herrand II of Wildonie was descended from an impor- von Wildonie.\u201d In Kleinere Erz\u00e4hlformen im Mittelalter. tant Styrian family holding the hereditary office of high Paderborner Colloquium 1987, ed. Klaus Grubm\u00fcller, et al. steward of Styria. The family seat was the now ruined Paderborn: Sch\u00f6ningh, 1988, pp. 111\u2013120. castle of Alt Wildon, near Graz, Austria, on the River Mur. He was born circa 1230 and died about 1278\/1282. Herrand was married to Perhta, daughter of Ulrich von Lichtenstein. He was active politically in the Interreg- num years, first for Bela of Hungary, then Ottokar of Bohemia, and finally for Rudolf of Habsburg. 328","Fischer, Hanns. Herrand von Wildonie. Vier Erz\u00e4hlungen. T\u00fcbin- HILDEGARD VON BINGEN gen: Niemeyer, 1959. 2nd ed. 1969 [narratives]. Hild suffered a long illness beginning in 674, dying Hofmeister, Wernfried. Die steierischen Minnes\u00e4nger. Edition, on 17 November 680. One of the nuns of her monastery, \u00dcbersetzung, Kommentar. G\u00f6ppingen: K\u00fcmmerle, 1987. \u00c6lffl\u00e6d, King Oswiu\u2019s daughter, succeeded her as ab- bess, ruling with her mother, Eanf\u00e6d. Several nuns saw Margetts, John. \u201cHerrand von Wildonie: The Political Intentions visions of Hild\u2019s death and ascent into heaven (Eccle- of Der bl\u00f6ze keiser and Diu katze.\u201d In Court and Poet. Selected siastical History 4.23). Her remains were translated to Proceedings of the Third Congress of the International Courtly Glastonbury in the 10th century. Literature Society (Liverpool 1980), ed. Glyn S. Burgess. Trowbridge: Francis Cairns, 1981, pp. 249\u2013266. See also Bede the Venerable; C\u00e6dmon Ottmann, Christa and Hedda Ragotzky. \u201cZur Funktion exem- Further Reading plarischer triuwe-Beweise in Minne-M\u00e4ren: \u201cDie treue Gat- tin\u201d Herrands von Wildone, \u201cDas Herzem\u00e4re\u201d Konrads von Colgrave, Bertram, and R.A.B. Mynors, eds. and trans. Bede\u2019s W\u00fcrzburg und die \u201cFrauentreue.\u201d In Kleinere Erz\u00e4hlformen im Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Oxford: Clar- Mittelalter. Paderborner Colloquium 1987, ed. Klaus Grub- endon, 1969, pp. 404\u201321 and passim. m\u00fcller, et al. Paderborn: Sch\u00f6ningh, 1988, pp. 89\u2013109. Cross, J.E. \u201cA Lost Life of Hilda of Whitby: The Evidence of the Thomas, J. W., trans. The Tales and Songs of Herrand von Wil- Old English Martyrology.\u201d Acta 5 (1979): 21\u201343. donie. Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 1972. Fell, Christine E. \u201cHild, Abbess of Streoneshalch.\u201d In Hagi- von Kraus, Carl. Deutsche Liederdichter des 13. Jahrhunderts, ograpby and Medieval Literature: A Symposium, ed. Hans Vol. 1. Text. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1952, pp. 588\u2013589 [songs]. Bekker-Nielsen et al. Odense: Odense University Press, Vol. 2. Kommentar ed. Hugo Kuhn. 1958, pp. 635\u2013638 [com- 1981, pp. 76\u201399. mentary]. Hession, \u00c6theldreda. \u201cSt Hilda and St Etheldreda.\u201d In Benedict\u2019s John Margetts Disciples, ed. D.H. Farmer. Leominster: Fowler Wright, 1980, pp. 70\u201385. HILD (ca. 614\u2013680) Donald K. Fry Hild (or Hilda) lived a dual life: 33 years as a prin- cess, then 33 years as an abbess and teacher. Bede\u2019s HILDEGARD VON BINGEN (1098\u20131179) Ecclesiastical History tells most of what we know about her. She was born ca. 614, posthumously and in Benedictine, visionary, author, composer, and Germa- exile, to Princess Breguswith and Hereric, a nephew ny\u2019s first female physician, Hildegard was the tenth of King Edwin (616\u201333). As a child she shared exile child of Hildebert and Mechthild von Bermersheim. in East Anglia at the court of King R\u00e6dwald with her She was raised by the recluse Jutta von Spanheim at the great-uncle Edwin. After Edwin regained his kingdom Benedictine monastery of Disibodenberg (near Bingen) in 617, Hild returned with him to Northumbria. She and made her monastic profession between 1112\u20131115. may have observed his famous council in 627, after In 1136 she was elected magistra (mistress) of the which she received baptism with him and 12,000 of Disibodenberg women\u2019s community which had by then his subjects on 12 April after religious instruction from become quite large. Bishop Paulinus (Ecclesiastical History 2.13\u201314). When Edwin died in 633, Hild returned to exile in East Anglia While aware of a \u201cshadow of the living light\u201d (umbra with her mother, Breguswith, and her sister, Hereswith, viventis lucis) from childhood on, Hildegard had her first who later married King \u00c6thelhere there. In 647 Hild, clear vision in 1141 at the age of 43. She understood her probably a widow, became a nun and the following year insights as divine revelations concerning the meaning of founded the nunnery at Wear. In 649 she became abbess Scripture and obeyed the command to write. The Cister- of Hartlepool and in 657 abbess of the double monastery cian Pope Eugene III officially recognized her visionary at Whitby (OE Streones-healch). gift at the Trier Synod in 1147\/1148. In 664 she hosted the Synod of Whitby, where King That same year, Hildegard founded her own Benedic- Oswiu of Northumbria decided that the English church tine women\u2019s monastery, St. Rupertsberg (opposite Bin- would follow Roman practice rather than Irish (Eccle- gen), whose abbess she became, and in 1165, a second siastical History 3.25). Her side lost, and she observed monastery in Eibingen (today, the Abbey St. Hildegard). Roman rules thereafter. During her reign at Whitby she promoted the training of missionaries and scholars. Five Between 1160\u20131170, Hildegard undertook four of her students became bishops: \u00c6tla, of Dorchester; public preaching tours to German cities and monaster- Bosa, of Deira and York; John, of Hexham and York; ies, as far away as Bamberg and Swabia. Known as the Oftfor, of Worcester; and Wilfrid II, of York. Hearing prophetissa teutonica (German, female prophet), she C\u00e6dmon sing his inspired Hymn, she recruited him into was consulted by and corresponded with popes, kings, religious life and sponsored his career as a composer including Frederick I Barbarossa, abbots and abbesses, of religious verse, probably used for conversion and and many other renowned contemporaries, among strengthening faith (Ecclesiastical History 4.24). them, Bernard of Clairvaux. In composing her complex visionary, exegetical, speculative, and scientific works, 329","HILDEGARD VON BINGEN Order of Virtue). Hildegard also wrote two vitae, a trea- tise against the contemporary Cathars, and a linguistic Saint Hildegard of Bingen (1098\u20131179) and the Four Seasons. essay on a lingua ignota (unknown language). From \u201cDe Operatione Dei.\u201d Rupertsburg, Germany, 1200 CE. Codex Latiunm 1942. f.38r. \u00a9 Scala\/Art Resource, New York. Hildegard\u2019s visionary and prophetic work deals with complex theological, anthropological, and ecclesio- Hildegard was at first assisted by her former teacher, the logical issues. Her idea of the church and society was a monk Volmar of Disibodenberg, and from 1177 on, by strictly hierarchical one. Anchored in the Benedictine Guibert of Gembloux, who is also the author of a par- liturgical tradition, and the Bible, Hildegard was familiar tial vita of the Benedictine nun. Her complete vita was with the church fathers as well as with the writings of written by the monks Gottfried and Theoderich between her contemporaries, Honorius Augustodunensis, Rupert 1177\u20131181. Listed in the Martyrologium romanum (list von Deutz, and Bernard of Clairvaux. of martyrs) since the fifteenth century, Hildegard is venerated as a saint in Germany. Hildegard von Bingen was well known in her own century. Manuscripts of her works, especially some con- Hildegard von Bingen\u2019s most famous work Scivias taining resplendent illuminations made under her own (Know the Ways) (1141\u20131151) constitutes the first part supervision, stem from the twelfth century. Thereafter, of her trilogy of visions whose second and third parts are forgotten for centuries, her work was finally published in the Liber vitae meritorum (Book of Meritorious Life) the extensive series of medieval Latin works, Patrologia (1158\u20131163) and the Liber divinorum operum (Book of latina (Vol. 197, 1855) and by Joannes Baptista Pitra Divine Works), the latter also entitled Liber de opera- (Analecta, Vol. 8, 1882). The twentieth century gave tione del (Book of the Works of God, [1163\u20131173]). In rise to a revival of Hildegard\u2019s work through studies these works she speaks both of what she was given to and translations initiated by the Benedictine nuns of see and of a divine voice interpreting these visions to Eibingen, notably by the meticulous manuscript study her. Hildegard also conducted comprehensive studies of of Marianne Schrader and Adelgundis F\u00fchrk\u00f6tter: natural science and medicine, which she described in Die Echtheit des Schrifttums der heiligen Hildegard Physica (Subtilitatum diversarum naturarum creatur- von Bingen. Quellenkritische Untersuchungen, 1956 arum libri novem). Nine books on the nature of various (On the Authenticity of the Writing of St. Hildegard creatures and Causae et curae (Affilictions and cures, von Bingen: Source Studies). Extended concentrated between 1150\u20131160). Several hundred letters of her research in Hildegard von Bingen\u2019s voluminous work correspondence have been preserved as well as many began in Germany around 1979 in the context of the musical compositions including some seventy-seven 800-year celebration of her death. Since then, she has liturgical songs, and a drama, the Ordo virtutum (The become probably the most studied and the best known of all medieval women writers, not only among liter- ary and feminist scholars, but also among theologians, historians, and musicologists. Unfortunately, her literary and musical works have sometimes been popularized and misinterpreted beyond recognition. See also Bernard of Clairvaux; Frederick I Barbarossa Further Reading Hildegard of Bingen. The Book of the Rewards of Life\u2014Liber vitae meritorum, trans. Bruce W. Hozeski. New York: Gar- land, 1994. Hildegard of Bingen. Scivias, trans. Mother Columba Hart and Jane Bishop. New York: Paulist Press, 1990. Klaes, Monica. Vita Sanctae Hildegardis. CCCM 126. Turnhout: Brepols, 1993 [Latin \u201cLife\u201d]. Lewis, Gertrud Jaron. Bibliographie zur deutschen Frauenmystik des Mittelalters. Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag, 1989 [primary texts, pp. 70\u201384; secondary sources, pp. 66\u201370 and 84\u2013145]. Newman, Barbara. From Virile Woman to Woman Christ: Studies in Medieval Religion and Literature. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995. van Acker, L. Hildegardis Bingensis Epistolarium. 2 vols. Turn- hout: Brepols, 1991\u20131993 [Latin letters]. Gertrud Jaron Lewis 330","HILTON, WALTER (d. 1396) HILTON, WALTER Mystical writer; a hermit probably until the mid-1380s, Christ, rather than the Trinity or the Godhead itself. All then an Augustinian canon at Thurgarton in Notting- of these christocentric additions and alterations were hamshire. Probably to be identified with the bachelor added in the margins and on inserted scraps of paper in of civil law recorded in Lincoln and Ely in the early BL Harley 6579, on which all modern editions of the 1370s; inceptor in canon law in the early 1380s. If he Scale to date have been based. Despite this widespread was an M.A. before proceeding to the study of law editorial practice the current consensus of scholars and (which is not necessary), he would have been born in textual critics is that the \u201cHoly Name\u201d passage and the the early 1340s. passages similar to it were probably added by Hilton himself, whereas the \u201cchristocentric\u201d additions were The chronology of Hilton\u2019s works is uncertain. made by later scribes. The forthcoming EETS edition Clark and Taylor have suggested that the Latin tract of the Scale will therefore base Scale I on a manuscript De imagine peccati was Hilton\u2019s earliest extant work, whose text predates both the \u201cHoly Name\u201d and the written soon after 1381\u201382. The letter De utilitate et \u201cchristocentric\u201d additions, as well as the writing of prerogativis religionis (or Epistola aurea), written to Scale II. The importance of this textual decision is that encourage Adam Horsley in his decision to lay down it renders invalid a good deal of earlier discussion of the civil office and enter the Carthusian order, was probably \u201cchristocentricity\u201d of Hilton\u2019s mysticism. written shortly before 1387. The idea of the perversion of the human soul from an image of the divine Trinity Probably the most important idea in Hilton\u2019s works into an image of sin is important particularly in the first is that of the human soul as an image of the divine of these pieces and in the first book of Hilton\u2019s most Trinity, perverted into an image of sin: an idea that important work, the English Scale of Perfection; there originates in Augustine\u2019s De Trinitate and is expanded are also similarities between Scale I and the De utilitate upon by the Victorines and the early Franciscan writ- and his English letter On the Mixed Life that suggest that ers. According to this trinitarian psychology the soul all four of these works were written in the mid-1380s. comprises the faculties of Memory (or Mind, as it was Hilton probably wrote his De adoracione imaginum, an usually translated into ME), corresponding to the Father; anti-Wycliffite defense of the use of images (painting, Understanding (or Reason), corresponding to the Son; sculpture, etc.) in worship, in the late 1380s. and Will, corresponding to the Holy Spirit. Through original sin, however, the soul has been perverted into The dating of Hilton\u2019s other writings is even less the image of the seven deadly sins. Because the recently certain. These works include the English translations enclosed anchoress for whom Hilton wrote Scale I could of Eight Chapters on Perfection by Lluis de Font, an not read and meditate on the Latin text of scripture, Aragonese Franciscan contemporary of Hilton\u2019s at Hilton proposes for her an exercise of introspection Cambridge, and the Pseudo-Bonaventuran Stimulus aimed at discovering and extirpating each of these sins amoris (The Pricking of Love or Goad of Love); com- in herself. mentaries on the texts \u201cQui Habitat\u201d (Ps. 90:1) and \u201cBonumEst\u201d (Ps. 91:1); and On Angels\u2019 Song, a work on Hilton\u2019s contemplative exercises for his anchoress the dangers of seeking physical expression of mystical correspondent go significantly beyond the meditation experience. The attribution to Hilton of a further Eng- on the Passion of Christ that was normally enjoined lish commentary on the \u201cBenedictus\u201d is unsure. Three upon women at that time, though he does briefly discuss other Latin treatises survive: the Epistola de leccione, such Passion meditations, immediately before propos- intencione, oracione, meditacione et aliis, the Epistola ing his more introspective exercises. This same concern ad quemdam seculo renunciare volentem, and Quantum with providing alternative modes of contemplation for ad futura (also known as \u201cFirmissima crede\u201d). Finally nonmonastic or nonclerical audiences also informs his we should note that the second book of Hilton\u2019s Scale letter On the Mixed Life, whose opening sections echo of Perfection probably marks the culmination of his those of Scale I. In this innovative treatise Hilton pro- thought and experience. poses a life of both action and contemplation to a man whose worldly activities and responsibilities do not al- Because the two books of The Scale of Perfection low him to retire from the world as a monk or hermit but were written as many as ten years apart, their rela- who feels the same stirrings of devotion that they do. tionship to each other has been a major focus of the discussion of Hilton\u2019s works. Prospective editors of In Scale II Hilton covers much of the same ground the Scale have noted the presence of a long expository as in Scale I, with greater psychological and theologi- passage on the devotion to the name of Jesus (and two cal precision. Clark has suggested that at one point, at other similar passages) apparently added to the text of least, his intention was to express more carefully an idea Scale I after it was already in circulation, as well as for which he had been criticized (anonymously) in The a number of smaller additions and rewordings, many Cloud of Unknowing. Scale II describes particularly the of which appear to focus on devotion to the person of progress from \u201creformation in faith\u201d to \u201creformation in faith and feeling\u201d (i.e., the point where one actually 331","HILTON, WALTER readers, treating as they do Hoccleve\u2019s poverty and mental breakdown in an often subtly comic or moving feels as true what one had previously known only by manner. At the same time caution must be exercised in faith), culminating with the allegory of the journey to the accepting these passages as historical. What is certain heavenly Jerusalem and a discussion of contemplative is that from 1387 Hoccleve was a clerk at the office of prayer and the special gifts of God. the privy seal in London, where he remained for the rest of his working life. The last payment to him is made in Hilton\u2019s works were influential in the century im- 1426, where he is described as \u201clately\u201d a clerk of the mediately preceding the Reformation, surviving in nu- privy seal. In his Complaint he describes the result of merous manuscripts, transmitted in Latin to continental a mental breakdown he had five years earlier; his pay- Europe, and printed several times at the end of the 15th ment for 1416 was paid to him through friends. Most century and the beginning of the 16th. of his poetry is addressed to powerful patrons, often in the explicit hope of reward. See alo Rolle, Richard, of Hampole The Letter of Cupid, a translation of Christine de Further Reading Pizan\u2019s Epistre au dieu d\u2019amours, praises the virtues of women. It survives in ten manuscripts, two of which Primary Sources are autographs (Durham University Cosin V.ii.13 and Huntington HM 744). La Male Regle, written in the There is no critical edition of The Scale of Perfection, but an form of a confession for a misspent youth, is really a EETS edition is in preparation. well-shaped begging poem; it is found in Huntington HM 111, another autograph, which contains many other Clark, John P.H., and Rosemary Dorward, trans. The Scale of short occasional and religious pieces by Hoccleve. Perfection. New York: Paulist Press, 1991. Hoccleve\u2019s largest work, The Regement of Princes, is in the \u201cmirror for princes\u201d genre and is largely indebted Clark, J.P.H., and Cheryl Taylor, eds. Walter Hilton\u2019s Latin to Latin works in the genre; 45 manuscripts contain the Writings. Salzburg: Institut fur Anglistik und Amerikanistik, text, of which BL Arundel 38 and Harley 4866 are the 1987. most authoritative. The complete Series appears in five manuscripts, of which Durham University Cosin V.iii.9 Jones, Dorothy, ed. Minor Works of Walter Hilton, London: Burns, is an autograph, except for the Complaint. Oates, & Washbourne, 1929 [modernized text]. Hoccleve claims Chaucer as his master and friend Kane, Harold, ed. The Prickynge of Love. Salzburg: Institut f\u00fcr (e.g., Regement 2077\u20132107, 4982\u201398). From Chaucer Anglistik und Amerikanistik, 1983. Hoccleve certainly learns much, in particular, perhaps, the presentation of the author\u2019s own persona in his Ogilvie-Thomson, S.J., ed. Walter Hilton\u2019s Mixed Life. Salzburg: work as a self-deprecating and naive character. But in Institut f\u00fcr Anglistik und Amerikanistik, 1986. Hoccleve\u2019s case this topos dominates the poetry (see especially La Male Regle, the Prologue to the Regement, Wallner, Bj\u00f6rn, ed. An Exposition Of \u201cQui Habitat\u201d and \u201cBonum and the Series), and discussion of it has dominated recent Est\u201d in English. Lund: Gleerup, 1954. critical studies. Some critics take Hoccleve\u2019s self-pre- sentation as purely conventional, whereas others have Secondary Sources tried to define the ways in which Hoccleve draws on conventional topoi to negotiate his way out of the crises Manual 9:3074\u201382, 3430\u201338. of poverty and mental instability. Clark, J.P.H. \u201cWalter Hilton in Defense of the Religious Life and See also Chaucer, Geoffrey; Christine de Pizan of the Veneration of Images.\u201d DownR 102 (1985): 1\u201325 [the latest in an important series of studies of Hilton\u2019s works]. Further Reading Milosh, Joseph E. The Scale of Perfection and the English Mystical Tradition. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, Primary Sources 1966. Minnis, Alastair. \u201cThe Cloud of Unknowing and Walter Hilton\u2019s Furnivall, Frederick J., ed. Hoccleve\u2019s Regement of Princes and Scale of Perfection.\u201d In Middle English Prose: A Critical Fourteen Minor Poems. EETS e.s. 72. London: Humphrey Guide to Major Authors and Genres, ed. A.S.G. Edwards. New Milford, 1897. Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1984, pp. 61\u201381. Sargent, Michael G. \u201cWalter Hilton\u2019s Scale of Perfection: The Furnivall, Frederick J., and Israel Gollancz, eds. Hoccleve\u2019s London Manuscript Group Reconsidered.\u201d M\u00c652 (1983): Works: The Minor Poems. Rev. Jerome Mitchell and A.I. 189\u2013216. Doyle. 2 vols. in 1. EETS e.s. 61, 73. London: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1970. Michael G. Sargent HOCCLEVE, THOMAS (ca. 1366\u20131426) Poet, scribe, and minor bureaucrat; author of The Letter of Cupid (1402), La Male Regle (1405\u201306), The Rege- ment of Princes (1411), a compilation in verse and prose now known as the Series (including the Complaint, the Dialogue with a Friend, and Learn to Die; 1419\u201321), and many shorter religious and political poems. Hoccleve\u2019s biography looms large in any account of him as a poet, since his supposedly autobiographi- cal passages constitute the main attraction for modern 332","Secondary Sources HROSVIT OF GANDERSHEIM New CBEL 1:646\u201347. instruction to be given to catechumens; the second deals Manual 3:746\u201356, 903-08. with liturgy; and the third focuses on liberal education, Burrow, J.A. \u201cHoccleve\u2019s Series: Experience and Books.\u201d In especially with the goal of training preachers. Fifteenth-Century Studies: Recent Essays, ed. R.F. Yeager. Hrabanus wrote biblical commentaries on the his- Hamden: Archon, 1984, pp. 259\u201373. torical books of the Old Testament (Pentateuch), some Burrow, J.A. Thomas Hoccleve. Aldershot: Variorum, 1994. prophets (Jeremiah and Ezekiel), one of the Gospels Greetham, D.C. \u201cSelf-Referential Artifacts: Hoccleve\u2019s Persona (Matthew), and the epistles of Paul. In his exegeses, As a Literary Device.\u201d MP 86 (1989): 242\u201351. Hrabanus consistently excerpts patristic writers, such as Mitchell, Jerome. \u201cHoccleve Studies, 1965\u201381.\u201d In Fifteenth- Isidore\u2019s and Bede, and supplies little of his own writing Century Studies: Recent Essays, ed. R.F. Yeager. Hamden: apart from allegorical and mystical interpretations. Archon, 1984, pp. 49\u201363. Hrabanus\u2019s erudition and writing ability perhaps James Simpson culminated in his encyclopedic De rerum naturis (later called De universo), in which he relies on Isidore\u2019s HRABANUS MAURUS Etymologies as both source and inspiration. As in his (ca. 780\u2013February 4, 856) exegeses, Hrabanus distinguishes himself from his pre- decessor by supplying allegorical explications. The name Hrabanus derives from the Old High German word for \u201craven\u201d; Maurus is a nickname he acquired Among his poems, the most successful was the De later, perhaps from his teacher Alcuin, and it pays trib- laudibus sanctae crucis, the first book of which contains ute to his dutiful piety as a disciple: Saint Maurus was a collection of twenty-eight carmina figurata (pattern or Saint Benedict\u2019s favorite pupil. For his encyclopedic figure poems) that are arranged to form intricate designs. learning and the energy he manifested in administration The second book offers a prose paraphrase. and teaching, Hrabanus Maurus was dubbed in early modern times praeceptor Germaniae (the teacher of Most of his other poems are conventional compo- Germany). sitions in distichs and hexameters, but he also wrote rhythmic poetry and hymns. Born at Mainz around 780 of noble Frankish parents, Hrabanus was given as a child to the monastery of Fulda. Hrabanus, although not original, was an erudite and There, he was ordained deacon (801) before being sent prolific scholar, whose efforts in extracting and synthe- for further education under Alcuin at Tours. He returned sizing the writings of earlier interpreters served well the to Fulda, first as head of the cloister school and later as needs of his contemporaries and successors. abbot (822\u2013842). Upon resigning as abbot, he went into seclusion near Fulda at Petersberg. Later, he was named See also Charlemagne; Otfrid, Walafrid Strabo archbishop of Mainz (847), an office he held until his death on February 4, 856. Further Reading Hrabanus made a major contribution in educating Brunh\u00f6lzl, Franz. Histoire de la litt\u00e9rature latine du moyen \u00e2ge, young men, such as Otfrid von Wei\u00dfenburg, Lupus of vol. 1 \u201cDe Cassiodore \u00e0 la fin de la renaissance carolingienne\u201d; Ferri\u00e8res, and Walahfrid Strabo, who became the fore- vol. 2 \u201cL\u2019\u00e9poque carolingienne,\u201d trans. Henri Rochais, with most churchmen, scholars, and poets of the next gen- bibliographic supplements by Jean-Paul Bouhot. Turnhout: eration. Unfortunately, he is also remembered for one Brepols, 1991, pp. 84\u201398, 282\u2013286. major failure in mentoring: he first forced Gottschalk of Orbais, a monk at Fulda, to take the tonsure against his D\u00fcmmler, Ernst, ed. Hrabani Mauri carmina. In: Monumenta will and later persecuted him, with severe beatings and Germaniae Historica Poetae Latini Aevi Carolini 2. Berlin: imprisonment, for his beliefs on predestination. Weidmann, 1884, pp. 154\u2013258. Many of Hrabanus\u2019 numerous writings are derivative Kn\u00f6pfler, Alois, ed. Rabani Mauri de institutione clericorum compilations. He sought to make available the schol- libri tres. Ver\u00f6ffentlichungen aus dem Kirchenhistorischen arship of earlier eras by taking extracts from original Seminar M\u00fcnchen. Munich: Verlag der J. J. Lentner\u2019schen works and knitting them together into a coherent whole, Buchhandlung, 1900. so that students and churchmen who did not have ex- tensive libraries at their disposal could find in his works Kottje, Raymund. \u201cHrabanus Maurus.\u201d In Die deutsche Literatur the essentials they needed for building their faith and des Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon, ed. Kurt Ruh, et al. 2nd ed. extending their intellectual training. Berlin and NewYork: de Gruyter, 1988, vol. 4, cols. 166\u2013196. De institutione clericorum (On the education of the Migne, J.-P., ed. Patrologiae cursus completus; series latina, 221 clergy) is typical of Hrabanus\u2019 oeuvre in being replete vols. Paris: J.-P. Migne, 1844\u20131864, vols. 107\u2013112. with excerpted material. The first book sets forth the various ecclesiastical grades, liturgical vestments, and Jan M. Ziolkowski HROSVIT OF GANDERSHEIM (10th c.) Born in the fourth decade of the tenth century, Hrosvit lived and wrote in the Gandersheim Abbey in Saxony, during the abbey\u2019s \u201cGolden Age\u201d under Gerberga II\u2019s rule. Her name, \u201cStrong Voice (or Testimony),\u201d ex- 333","HROSVIT OF GANDERSHEIM his ancestors, the Robertians, Hugh had landholdings and an influence over the Neustrian aristocracy that presses her poetic mission; the glorification of Christian effectively made him more powerful than the king, heroes, both secular and religious. The subject of her Lothair I (r. 954\u201386). From ca. 980 on, the two were in poems are the Ottonians and the whole Liudolf dynasty constant conflict. With the deaths of Lothair (986) and as well as the saints and martyrs of the Christian church. Louis V (987), Hugh rose to the throne (June\u2013July 987) Writing in Latin, mostly in leonine hexameters and and had his son Robert crowned soon after in Orl\u00e9ans rhymed, rhythmic prose, Hrosvit chose hagiographic (December 987). plots for her legends and plays and contemporary and near-contemporary events for her secular epics. Once king, however, Hugh proved as weak as he had been strong as duke: the last Carolingian claimant, Her works are arranged in three books, organized ge- Charles of Lorraine, rebelled against him, and only nerically and chronologically, and delineated as such by the treachery of Bishop Adalbero of Laon resolved prefatory and dedicatory materials. Book One contains the conflict (991). The treachery of Arnulf, archbishop eight legends (Marian, Ascencio, Gongolf, Pelagius, of Reims, and the papal deposition of his replace- Basilius, Theolphilus, Dionysius, and Agnes); all but ment, Gerbert of Aurillac, set in motion a conflict that Pelagius, which she claims to have composed based on marred the remainder of Hugh\u2019s reign. Although it had an eyewitness report, are based on biblical, apocryphal, started before he took the throne, the castellan revolu- and hagiographic texts. tion reached a peak in many regions of the kingdom at this point, and the impotence of both royal power and Book Two, Hrosvit\u2019s best-known and most contro- local Carolingian political structures (the pagus) drove versial work, contains six dramas, based, she claimed, some areas of his kingdom to seek their own solutions on the comedies of Terence. For his alluring, but mor- to disorder and violence. Among the most famous and ally perilous, mimetic powers, she said she wished to consequential of these efforts was the Peace of God. In substitute the glorious and morally beneficial ideals of October 996, Hugh died on campaign near Tours. militantly chaste Christianity. She chose the dramatic form, she argued, because the sweetness of Terence\u2019s Unable to assert the kind of royal authority at least style attracted many readers who, in turn, became cor- theoretically available to Carolingians, Hugh sought rupted by the wickedness of his subject matter. Of her legitimacy in an alliance with the church, both the epis- six plays, two (Dulcitius and Sapientia) deal with the copacy and the reforming monastic movement, and with martyrdom of three allegorical virgins during the perse- some of his most powerful neighbors, such as William cution of Christians under Diocletian and Hadrian; two V of Aquitaine and Richard II of Normandy, who gave concern the salvation of repentant harlots (Abraham and support in exchange for still greater levels of autonomy. Paphnutius); and two (Gallicanus and Calimachus) are As a result, the monarchy underwent a shift in the basis conversion plays. of its authority, from the essentially aristocratic Caro- lingian model to one more dependent on ecclesiastical Her two extant epics in Book 3, narrate the rise of legitimation and popular support. the Ottonian dynasty (Gesta Ottonis, or Deeds of the Ottonians) and the foundation of the Gandersheim Ab- See also Lothair I bey (Primordia). Throughout all her works, Hrosvit extols the ideals of monastic Christianity and exhorts Further Reading her audience and readers to imitate and emulate her saintly models. Lemarignier, Jean-Fran\u00e7ois. Le gouvernement royal aux premiers temps cap\u00e9tiens (987\u20131108). Paris: Picard, 1964. Further Reading Lewis, Andrew. Royal Succession in Capetian France: Studies on Wilson, Katharina, trans, and ed. Hrotsvit of Gandersheim: a Familial Order and the State. Cambridge: Harvard University florilegium of her works. Woodbridge (Suffolk) and Rochester, Press, 1981. N.Y.: Brewer, 1998. Lot, Ferdinand. \u00c9tudes sur le r\u00e8gne d\u2019Hugues Capet. Paris: \u2014\u2014. trans. The plays of Hrotsvit of Gandersheim. New York: Bouillon, 1903. Garland, 1989. Sassier, Yves. Hugues Capet. Paris: Fayard, 1987. Katharina M. Wilson Theis, Laurent. L\u2019av\u00e8nement d\u2019Hugues Capet. Paris: Gallimard, HUGH CAPET (ca. 940\u2013996) 1984. The son of Hugues le Grand, duke of Francia, Hugh Richard Landes Capet is traditionally considered the founder of the third dynasty of French kings, the Capetians, who HUGH OF SAINT-VICTOR (d. 1141) ruled, through collateral lines, up to and after the French Revolution. Hugh became duke of Francia and A leading theologian, biblical interpreter, and mystic of Aquitaine in 961, five years after his father\u2019s death. Like the first half of the 12th century, Hugh was the effective founder of the important school of the abbey of Saint- 334","Victor at Paris. Hugh\u2019s place of birth is uncertain\u2014evi- HUGH OF SAINT-VICTOR dence supports both Saxony and the Low Countries, with birth in one and early life in the other area a of disciplines of study (history, allegory, and tropology), possibility. He came to the new community of regular and gives for each discipline the proper order in which canons at Saint-Victor, probably in the early 1120s; by to read the biblical books appropriate for that approach 1125, he was writing and teaching and beginning to to the interpretation of the text. For the student pursuing gain a wide following among students and peers. Hugh the discipline of history, Hugh compiled a Chronicon was instrumental in asserting the fundamental need to with numerous chronological tables and historical aids; understand the literal, historical sense of the biblical text for the student of allegory, his theological masterwork, before undertaking allegorical and moral interpretation. De sacramentis christianae fidei, was intended to serve Indeed, his whole exegetical and theological project as an introduction. De scripturis et scriptoribus sacris, was founded on the premise that one must understand the preface to Hugh\u2019s collection of literal comments on history, the unfolding of events in time, as the funda- the Pentateuch and other Old Testament books (these mental category for God\u2019s revelation in the history of comments are printed as Notulae in Migne), is modeled the Jewish and Christian peoples. Hugh sought con- on the form of the accessus ad auctores then being used temporary Jewish interpretations for understanding the by the arts faculty to introduce classical authors and by literal sense of the Hebrew Scriptures, and he inspired biblical interpreters to introduce their commentaries. others, especially Andrew of Saint-Victor and Herbert of The introduction to Hugh\u2019s Chronicon contains a treatise Bosham, to pursue more thoroughly the understanding on the \u201cart of memory,\u201d an important contribution to the of Scripture through knowledge of the Hebrew language memory tradition. Hugh\u2019s other works include an un- and consultation with Jewish rabbis. In theology, Hugh finished series of sermons on Ecclesiastes; short pieces, composed the first summa of theology in the Parisian extracts, and fragments collected into several books of schools, De sacramentis christianae fidei, thus pav- miscellania; short contemplative and theological trea- ing the way for the long series of summae that would tises; several letters; and numerous sermons scattered characterize much of medieval scholastic theology. His throughout medieval collections and only recently fully mystical writings, especially the two treatises on the identified. symbolic meaning of Isaiah\u2019s vision of the seraphim and the structure of Noah\u2019s Ark (De arca Noe morali and See also Andrew of Saint Victor; Eriugena, De arca Noe mystica) are some of the first attempts to Johannes Scottus systematize in treatises teaching on the ascetic-contem- plative life. De arca Noe mystica describes a complex Further Reading drawing (meant to be used as a focus for meditation) that presented a visualization of the cosmos, the unfolding Hugh of Saint-Victor. Opera. PL 175\u201377. of the history of salvation, and the stages of the interior \u2014\u2014. Hugonis de Sancto Victore, Didascalicon: de studio legendi. spiritual journey of the individual to contemplative ecstasy. His commentary on the Celestial Hierarchy A Critical Text, ed. Charles Henry Buttimer. Washington, D.C.: of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (In hierarchiam Catholic University Press, 1939. coelestem) was a major moment in bringing the thought \u2014\u2014. The \u201cDidascalicon\u201d of Hugh of St. Victor: A Medieval of Pseudo-Dionysius into the mainstream of western Guide to the Arts, trans. Jerome Taylor. New York: Columbia theology and mysticism. Hugh based his work upon the University Press, 1961. 9th-century translation and commentary by \u201cJohannes \u2014\u2014. Hugh of Saint Victor on the Sacraments of the Christian Scottus Eriugena, but the interpretation was stamped Faith (De sacramentis), trans. Roy J. Deferrari. Cambridge: with his own distinctive understanding of Dionysius\u2019s Mediaeval Academy of America, 1951. thought, an understanding deeply influenced by Hugh\u2019s Baron, Roger. Science et sagesse chez Hugues de Saint-Victor. Augustinian theology and his own view of the function Paris: Lethielleux, 1957. of symbols in the mediation of divine truth to human Ehlers, Joachim. Hugo von St. Viktor: Studien zum Geschichts- beings living in a material world. Hugh\u2019s encyclopedic denken und zur Geschichtsschreibung des 12. Jahrhunderts. learning is reflected in his Didascalicon: de studio leg- Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1973. endi, that provides a guide for the student of philosophy Goy, Rudolf. Die \u00dcberlieferung der Werke Hugos von St. Viktor: (Books 1\u20133) and the Bible (Books 4\u20136). In this work, Ein Beitrag zur Kommunikationsgeschichte des Mittelalters. Hugh presents the liberal arts as the remedy for the Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1976. loss of knowledge and goodness in the Fall, while the Sicard, Patrice. Hugues de Saint-Victor et son \u00e9cole. Turnhout: mechanical arts (e.g., weaving) provide for the resulting Brepols, 1991. weakness of the human body. The section on reading Van den Eynde, Damien. Essai sur la succession et la date des Scripture outlines Hugh\u2019s understanding of a sequence \u00e9crits de Hugues de Saint-Victor. Rome: Apud Pontificium Athenaeum Antonianium, 1960. Zinn, Grover A. \u201cMandala Symbolism and Use in the Mysticism of Hugh of St. Victor.\u201d History of Religions 12 (1972\u201373): 317\u201341. \u2014\u2014. \u201cHugh of St. Victor, Isaiah\u2019s Vision, and De arca Noe.\u201d In The Church and the Arts, ed. Diana Wood. Oxford: Black- well, 1992. Grover A. Zinn 335","HUGO VON TRIMBERG HUGUES DE SAINT-CHER HUGO VON TRIMBERG (ca. 1195\u20131263) (1230\/1240\u2013ca. 1313) Nothing is known of Hugues\u2019s origins, except that he Documented (1290) as teacher (magister\/rector scola- was born, in Saint-Cher, not far from Vienne in the rum) of St. Gangolfstift in Teuerstadt near Bamberg, south of France. He had become a doctor of canon law Hugo composed twelve works, seven of which survive. and a bachelor of theology even before he joined the Among his four Latin texts, aids for teaching and preach- Dominicans at Paris in 1225, where he studied under ing, the Registrum Multorum Auctorum, listing some Roland of Cremona, the first Dominican to hold a chair eighty authors from classical antiquity to the Middle in theology at the University of Paris. Hugues soon set Ages, established a canon of Latin literary learning which upon a vocation that would make him one of the most was still observed as late as the seventeenth century. prominent churchmen of his day. He first served in an administrative capacity as provincial of the Order for The surviving work in Middle High German, Der France from 1227 to 1229. Subsequently, he took up the Renner, about 24,600 verses, lives on in seventy manu- posts of master of theology (1230\u201336) at the university scripts, and was printed at Frankfurt am Main in 1549. and prior of the Dominican convent of Saint-Jacques This gnomic text rivalled Wolfram von Eschenbach\u2019s (1233\u201336). After leaving his posts at the university and Parzival in popularity for some time. Its thematic scope the convent, he resumed his duties for the next eight made the Renner a forerunner of the Narrenliteratur of years as provincial-general of the Order of Preachers Heinrich Wittenweiler and Sebastian Brant. The schema for the French province, while continuing to maintain of the seven cardinal sins (medieval German, h\u00f4chvart\/ a lively interest in the scholarly activities of his order in Latin, superbia, g\u00eetikeit\/avaritia, fr\u00e2z\/gula, zorn\/ira, n\u00eet\/ Paris. He became vicar-general of his order in 1240 and invidia, unkiusche\/luxuria, lazheit\/accedia) structured attained his highest administrative post with his selection a vision of late medieval societas Christiana (Christian as the first Dominican cardinal on May 28, 1244. society) ruled by greed, as demonstrated in commerce and usury. The Renner documents an anxious view of Hugues played a central role in the study of the Bible early capitalism, a system seen to be deriving its impetus and theology in the 13th century. At Saint-Jacques, he from Satan. Striving for money in this text separates the assembled a team that produced three works that served foolish rich from the wise and willing poor. as essential starting points for the theologians and preachers of his day: an expanded commentary on the The Renner\u2019s stylistic diversity exemplifies the art Bible; a version of the Latin Vulgate incorporating a vast of gnomic writing in the vernacular. Biblical examples, series of linguistic notes \u201ccorrecting\u201d the contemporary folk narrative, well worn fables, and quotations from version of the text; and the first alphabetical concordance classical and medieval authorities are used to support to the Bible. His set of commentaries, known as Postil- the author\u2019s attempt to lead fellow Christians from sin to lae, use as their starting point the Glossa ordinaria, itself virtue. For the literary and social historian, this extensive a digest of patristic and Carolingian exegesis, and add to gnomic text provides a rich source for research into (late) it the fruits of the study of the Bible produced from the medieval mentality, It portrays a deep ambivalence in middle of the 12th century to his own time. His \u201ccor- Christian morality in relation to social roles of women, rected\u201d Vulgate, the Correctoria, gives as full a sense in the relationship of Christians to Jews, and in the view of the literal meaning of the text as was possible for the of litterati (the educated) regarding illitterati (the unedu- 13th century, and his Concordantia greatly facilitated cated), and peasants (rustici) in particular. The Renner the task of preaching, allowing a relative novice to find is an important representative of a popular literary genre his way around in the Bible without having to commit which has left deep traces in the cultural memory. the entire text to memory. See also Wittenweiler, Heinrich; Hugues began his work on the Correctoria as early Wolfram von Eschenbach as 1227, although the latest versions of this work date from his years as cardinal (1244\u201363). The Postillae Further Reading date from his years as master (1230\u201336), and his Con- cordantia from 1238\u201340\u2014a work to which some 500 Ehrismann, Gustav, ed. Der Renner von Hugo von Trimberg. friars contributed. Although the Bible had been given 4 vols. 1980\u20131911; rpt. ed. G\u00fcnther Schweikle. Berlin: de standard chapter divisions by Stephen Langton at the Gruyter, 1970\u20131971. end of the 12th century, Hugues was the first to introduce subdivisions (a,b,c,d,e,f,g), an essential element for his Goheen, Jutta. Mensch und Moral im Mittelalter. Darmstadt: correctoria and concordance. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1990. His Commentary on the Sententiae of Peter Lom- Rosenplenter, Lutz. Zitat und Autorit\u00e4tenberufung im \u201cRenner\u201d bard, dating from his early years as master of theology, Hugos von Trimberg. Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 1982. was among the first to employ the form of the quaestio Sprandel, Rolf. \u201cDer Adel des 13. Jahrhunderts im Spiegel des Renner von Hugo von Trimberg.\u201d In Otto von Botenglauben: Minnes\u00e4nger, Kreuzfahrer, Klostergr\u00fcnder. W\u00fcrzburg: Sch\u00f6ningh, 1994, pp. 296\u2013308. Jutta Goheen 336","in preference to a running commentary. In effect, this HUMILITY OF FAENZA form signaled a shift away from simply commenting on Lombard\u2019s text to rewriting it, a process that was to tion to Christ, the Virgin Mary, and others. The writing reach its perfected form a generation later in the Summa is forceful, expressive, prone to grammatical errors of theologica of Thomas Aquinas. case and gender, and replete with resonances of biblical and other widely known Latin Christian texts. Rhetori- Among Hugues\u2019s more original contributions to cal artifice is present but not overwhelming. A linear theology was his teaching of the \u201ctreasury of merits\u201d syntax reminiscent of ordinary speech patterns and the that held that the superabundance of the merits and occasional inappropriate substitution of one similarly- good works of Christ, the Virgin, and the saints are at sounding word for another suggest the oral environment the disposal of the church, in the office of the pope, to in which these pieces were delivered and taken down distribute to the faithful. With the articulation of the by dictation. The present Sermon 9 (the division and treasury of merits, the theology of indulgences became arrangement of Humility\u2019s work has varied according integral to the practice of private penance. to the judgment of her editors) consists largely of rhyth- mic poems of the sort called laude (\u201csongs of praise\u201d). As cardinal, Hugues worked closely with three Much matter in the higher-numbered Sermons can be popes and served on papal commissions that heard the analyzed somewhat similarly, even if it is not printed controversies over Joachim of Fiore, the posthumous similarly; and there is evidence from the early modern champion of the Spiritual Franciscans, in 1255 and period that several passages were sung in Vallombrosian William of Saint-Amour, the most vocal critic of the monasteries and transcribed as separate laude in Latin mendicant orders, in 1256. Hugues\u2019s eucharistic devo- or in Italian translations, or both. tion is epitomized in the feast of Corpus Christi, which he authorized in Li\u00e8ge while legate there between 1251 Apart from the testimony of the Sermons themselves, and 1253 and which was placed in the calendar of the almost all that we know of Humility comes from two universal church in 1264 by Pope Urban IV, whom early fourteenth-century lives, one in Latin and one in Hugues had served. Italian. She was a talented and determined individual, with little if any forma! education, who had been born See also Aquinas, Thomas; Joachim of Fiore; into a noble family at Faenza. Humility was her name Peter Lombard in religion; Rosanese was her original name. She went from married life to the life of a conventual, then became Further Reading an ascetic solitary, and subsequently founded a com- munity of Vallombrosian nuns. In 1282, together with Kaeppeli, Thomas. Scriptores ordinis praedicatorum medii aevi. a few companions, she traveled to Florence, where she 3 vols. Rome: Ad S. Sabinae, 1975\u201380, Vol. 2, pp. 269\u201381. established the Vallombrosian convent of Saint John the Evangelist and spent the remaining years of her Lerner, Robert E. \u201cPoverty, Preaching, and Eschatology in the life. Humility was recognized as a living saint both in Revelation Commentaries of Hugh of Saint-Cher.\u201d In The Faenza and in Florence; shortly after her death she was Bible in the Medieval World: Essays in Memory of Beryl Smal- the subject of a statue by Andrea di Cione (Orcagna) ley, ed. Catharine Walsh and Diana Wood. Oxford: Blackwell, and of a polyptych altarpiece whose paintings have 1985. often been attributed to Pietro Lorenzetti. Her cult was authorized by the papacy in 1720 for the Vallombrosians Principe, Walter. The Theology of the Hypostatic Union in the and in 1721 for the dioceses of Florence and Faenza. Early Thirteenth Century. 4 vols. Toronto: Pontifical Institute She was canonized in 1948. of Mediaeval Studies, 1970, Vol. 3: Hugh of Saint-Cher\u2019s Theology of the Hypostatic Union. Further Reading Smalley, Beryl. The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages. 3rd Editions ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 1983. Simonetti, Adele, ed. I sermoni di Umilt\u00e0 da Faenza. Biblioteca Mark Zier di Medioevo Latino, 14. Spoleto: Centro Italiano di Studi sull\u2019 Alto Medioevo, 1995. HUMILITY OF FAENZA (c. 1226\u20131310) \u2014\u2014. Le vite di Umilt\u00e0 da Faenza: Agiografia trecentesca dal latino al volgare. Per Verba: Testi Mediolatini con Traduzione, Humility of Faenza (Umilt\u00e0, Humilitas de Faventia, 8. Florence: SISMEL-Edizioni del Galluzzo, 1997. Rosanese) was an abbess and mystic and was said to be a miracle worker. She is perhaps unique in medieval Translations Italy as a known woman author of a substantial body of Latin texts that are unlikely to have been ghostwritten or \u201cLife of Saint Umilt\u00e0, Abbess of the Vallombrosan Order in significantly redacted by a male secretary or confessor. Florence,\u201d trans. Elizabeth Petroff. In Consolation of the These are her fifteen so-called Sermons, of which some Blessed. New York: Alta Gaia Society, 1979. pp. 121\u2013150. are sermons in the general medieval and modern sense (See introductory material, pp. 7\u201310. Includes translations of and the remainder\u2014for which she accurately uses the the Latin life, pp. 121\u2013137; and of much later Analects written term oratio (\u201cprayer\u201d)\u2014are formal addresses of devo- 337","HUMILITY OF FAENZA Fumagalli Beonio-Brocchieri, Mariateresa. \u201cThe Feminine Mind in Medieval Mysticism.\u201d In Creative Women in Medieval and on the basis of the Italian version, pp. 137\u2013150. The latter is Early Modern Italy: A Religious and Artistic Renaissance, ed. revised, with new introductory material, in Elizabeth Petroff, E. Ann Matter and John Coakley. Philadelphia: University of trans. \u201cThe Analects of Saint Umilt\u00e0.\u201d Vox Benedictina, 7, Pennsylvania Press, 1994, pp. 19\u201333. 1990, pp. 31\u201352.) \u201cSermons,\u201d trans. Richard J. Pioli. In Medieval Women\u2019s Visionary Mooney, Catherine M. \u201cAuthority and Inspiration in the Vitae Literature, ed. Elizabeth Alvilda Petroff. New York: Oxford and Sermons of Humility of Faenza.\u201d In Medieval Monastic University Press, 1986, pp. 247\u2013253. (Partial translations of Preaching, ed. Carolyn Muessig. Brill\u2019s Studies in Intellectual three texts as differentiated and numbered in a now superseded History, 90. Leiden: Brill, 1998, pp. 123\u2013144. edition of Torello Sala, Florence, 1884. See also corresponding material in Simonetti, sermons 4, 10, and 11.) Petroff, Elizabeth Alvilda. \u201cIntroduction: The Visionary Tradi- tion in Women\u2019s Writings\u2014Dialogue and Autobiography.\u201d Critical Studies In Medieval Women\u2019s Visionary Literature, ed. Elizabeth Alvilda Petroff. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986, Baccetti, E. \u201cVallombrosans.\u201d In New Catholic Encyclopedia, pp. 3\u201359. (See especially pp. 23\u201330, on qualities of style and Vol. 15. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967, p. 526. (See also expression.) later supplements.) \u2014\u2014. Body and Soul: Essays on Medieval Women and Mysti- Benvenuti Papi, Anna. \u201cMendicant Friars and Female Pinzochere cism. NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1994, pp. 110\u2013136, in Tuscany: From Social Marginality to Models of Sanctity.\u201d 161\u2013181, 204\u2013224. In Religion in Medieval and Renaissance Italy, ed. Daniel Bornstein and Roberto Rusconi. Chicago, Ill: University of Vasaturo, R. N. \u201cUmilt\u00e0\u201d and \u201cVallombrosa, Vallombrosane, Chicago Press, 1996, pp. 84\u2013103. Vallombrosani.\u201d In Dizionario degli istituti di perfezione, ed. Guerrino Pelliccia and Giancarlo Rocca, Vol. 9. Rome: Cantagalli, Gaspare, and Maria Chiara Celletti. \u201cUmilt\u00e0.\u201d In Edizioni Paoline, 1997, cols. 1509\u20131510, 1692\u20131702. (See Bibliotheca Sanctorum, ed. Filippo Caraffa et al., Vol. 12. especially cols. 1695\u20131697.) Rome: Citt\u00e0 Nuova Editrice for Istituto Giovanni XXIII della Pontificia Universit\u00e0 Lateranense, 1969, cols. 818\u2013822. (See John B. Dillon Celletti for \u201cIconografia\u201d only.) 338","I IBN ADRET, SOLOMON fostered by those who misunderstood Maimonides, and even signed his name to the ban against the study (ca. 1233\u2013ca. 1310) of philosophy. Nevertheless, while he frequently wrote harsh criticisms of philosophy, he was deeply indebted Solomon ibn Adret was the most important rabbinical to it, and matter-of-factly accepted certain of Mai- authority in Spain in his period, and one of the most monides\u2019 most \u201cextreme\u201d interpretations. He was the important of all time. We possess from his pen several first anywhere to cite Maimonides\u2019 commentary on the volumes of commentaries on most of the tractates of Mishnah, and in fact arranged for its translation from the Talmud and several more volumes of legal responsa Judeo-Arabic into Hebrew. He had, indeed, the greatest numbering in the thousands. All of these are a major respect for Maimonides, whom he frequently cited. source of information on the history of the period, of both Jews and non-Jews. He was the student of two great His importance as communal leader and representa- masters, both of Barcelona\u2014Rabbi Jonah Gerundi and tive of the Catalan Jews cannot be overemphasized. Ibn Moses ben Nah. man (Nah. manides; not a rabbi)\u2014and Adret served as adviser to three rulers: Jaime I, Pedro succeeded them as chief authority of the Arag\u00f3n-Cata- III, and Jaime II (the last addressed a letter to him as lonia Jewish community. He had many famous students, \u201cfaithful\u201d servant). He frequently was appointed by the almost all of whom became outstanding legal authorities kings as executor of important estates, and also served and rabbis of the next generation in Arag\u00f3n-Catalonia, at various times as tax collector and secretary of the Tudela, and Castile. Aside from Moses ben Maimon Jewish community of Barcelona. (Maimonides), who left Muslim Spain in his youth, no other Spanish Jewish scholar had as lasting an influ- Late in his life Ibn Adret composed other legal works, ence as Ibn Adret. (Nevertheless, scholars have made such as the Torat ha-bayit ha-arokh and a commentary incredible errors in naming his students, and Scholem on his own earlier abridged version of that work, which attributed to him the founding of a \u201cschool\u201d of qabbalah also serve as important source material for certain issues based on his confusion of two sources with similar of the time. He left two, or possibly three, sons who names, one written by a student of Ibn Adret but hav- were also scholars but never attained to their father\u2019s ing nothing to do with qabbalah and the other written importance. centuries later.) See also Jaime (Jaume) I of Arag\u00f3n-Catalonia; However, Ibn Adret was strongly influenced by qa- Maimonides; Moses ben Naham bbalah in ways unknown to Scholem. He sometimes borrowed whole sections verbatim from the qabbalist Further Reading \u2018Azriel of Girona in his commentaries on the aggadot (homilies) of the Talmud; indeed, the order of the Epstein, I. The \u201cResponsa\u201d of Rabbi Solomon Ben Adreth [sic] commentaries is based on that of \u2018Azriel. Additional of Barcelona as a Source of the History of Spain. New York, qabbalistic interpretations of Ibn Adret are cited in his 1968. (First published 1925.) (Of limited value.) student Meir Ibn Sahulah\u2019s (attributed) commentary on Nah. manides on the Torah. R. Salomo b. Abraham b. Adereth [sic]. Breslau, 1863. (In Ger- man; of limited value, but better than Epstein.) Ibn Adret joined in the controversy against the alle- gorical interpretation of the Bible and commandments Scholem, G. Kabbalah. New York, 1974. Norman Roth 339","IBN DAU\u00af D, ABRAHAM Zacut; for example. Aside from these three or four chronicles, however, neither the author nor his work IBN DAU\u00af D, ABRAHAM seems to have left any lasting impression on the Jews (ca. 1110 \u2013 1180?) of Spain. Abraham ibn Dau\u00afd, who was born in al-Andalus about There is yet another aspect of Ibn Dau\u00afd\u2019s career to 1110 or later and died (supposedly a martyr\u2019s death) pos- mention. It has frequently been claimed (even by the sibly in 1180 at Toledo, is an important if neglected fig- editor-translator of Sefer ha-qabbalah) that he was ure in the cultural history of the Jews of al-Andalus. the famous \u201cAvendauth\u201d who, with the archdeacon Domingo Gundisalvo, translated numerous Arabic He was apparently the first to introduce Aristotelian philosophical and scientific treatises into Latin. In fact, philosophy to the Jews of Spain; his work is extant this is a confusion with a Jewish philosopher (virtu- only in the medieval Hebrew translation, ha-Emunah ally unknown) by the name of Solomon ibn Dau\u00af d, ha-ramah (edited with German translation, 1853; there who converted to Christianity and was known as Juan is a very poor modern English translation). In particular Hispano (not Johannes Hispalensis, which has caused he utilized the philosophy of Ibn S\u00af\u0131na\u00af (Avicenna), and further confusion between him and a supposed John of was the first to argue for the agreement between Juda- Seville and even a Juan who was archbishop of Toledo ism and rational philosophical thought. Neither Jewish in 1166). In Latin this converted Jew was known as Jo- nor Muslim philosophers, of course, had any \u201cdouble hannes Avendaut or Avendehut. Only Albertus Magnus faith\u201d or \u201creason versus revelation\u201d conflict, which calls him \u201carchbishop of Toledo,\u201d undoubtedly confus- later plagued the Scholastics, so one should not view ing him with the previously mentioned Juan. Who this Ibn Dau\u00af d\u2019s effort as an attempt to convince readers David Iudaeus, whom Albert says included \u201cdicta\u201d of that it was unnecessary to choose between religion and several Muslim philosophers in his writing, may be is philosophy. Rather, somewhat like Maimonides after unclear; there is the possibility that this reference is to him, he was concerned with demonstrating the harmony Abraham ibn Dau\u00afd. between religion and reason in achieving the same truth. It was left to the far greater capacity of Maimonides to Finally, when the fourteenth-century Jewish astrono- make this demonstration (which explains the lack of mer of Toledo, Isaac Israeli, stated that Ibn Dau\u00afd wrote a influence of Ibn Dau\u00afd\u2019s work on later thought). treatise on astronomy, otherwise unknown, he may very well have confused it with one of the translations done More significantly, Ibn Dau\u00afd was first in another area: by Avendaut. More research on all of this is still needed. he was the first (and, in fact, the only) Jewish writer of al- Andalus to compose historical chronicles. He composed See also Avicenna; Maimonides two such treatises, one of minor importance, on the his- tory of the Second Temple and the Roman Empire, with Further Reading an abridged version of the medieval Hebrew Yossifon, and the much more interesting and significant Sefer Guttmann, J. Philosophies of Judaism. New York, 1964. pp. ha-qabbalah (Book of Tradition). Both of these works, 143\u201352. like his philosophical work (in part), were written with a certain degree of polemical propaganda. While it is true Ibn Dau\u00afd, A. Sefer ha-Qabbalah: The Book of Tradition. Ed. and that they were produced during the period of Almoravid Trans. G. Cohen. Philadelphia, 1967. dominance of al-Andalus, a time of some persecution (it is, however, scarcely true that \u201cthousands\u201d of Christians Norman Roth were \u201cwiped out,\u201d or that \u201cthousands\u201d of Jews converted, as has been claimed), these works show no evidence of IBN EZRA, MOSES (ca. 1055\u20131138) anti-Muslim hostility. Moses ibn Ezra was the second of four sons in an in- On the contrary, the latter book in particular seems fluential family of Granadan Jewish patricians, and the to have been directed primarily against the Qaraite first important Hebrew poet born during the politically sectarians of Judaism. It purports to be a history of the turbulent but culturally productive period of the muluk Jews from the biblical period to Ibn Dau\u00afd\u2019s day. Much at-tawa\u00af \u2019if (los reyes de taifas, the party kings). Civil of the work is of interest only to the specialist in Jew- disturbances connected with the 1066 murder ofYehosef ish historiography, therefore, but the relatively small ibn Naghrila forced the family to flee to nearby Lucena, portion on Jews in medieval al-Andalus is obviously where Moses studied with Isaac ibn Ghiyath, the master of great value, chiefly for biographical information on rabbi associated with the famous Talmudic academy of important scholars and other persons. Some light is also that town. When the clan returned to Granada, Moses shed on historical events and on the general culture of enjoyed the material culture and stimulating intellectual Jews at the time. and social life characteristic of the Jewish nobility. Dur- ing the years prior to 1090 he came into his own as a Thus, Sefer ha-qabbalah served as a major source courtier-rabbi and won acclaim as a poet\u2019s poet. for the few later medieval Hebrew chronicles composed in Spain, and entire sections were utilized by Abraham 340","In 1090 the Almoravid invasion broke the sociopoliti- IBN H. AZM cal stability of Granada, whose Jewish community was devastated for the second time in twenty-five years. For IBN H. AZM (994 \u2013 1063) reasons that are unclear, Moses did not join his brothers\u2019 exodus to C\u00f3rdoba and Toledo. He remained alone in Abu\u00af Muhammad \u2018Al\u00af\u0131 ibn H. azm was born in 994 at Granada, \u201ca resident alien\u201d in his desolate native land. Munyat al-Mugh\u00af\u0131ra, a suburb of C\u00f3rdoba, and died Subsequently, sometime between 1090 and 1095, Ibn on Mont Lishan, near Huelva, in 1063. He enjoyed the Ezra was mysteriously compelled to abandon his wife luxury and the education of the wealthy during the last and children, and leave Granada for exile in Christian years of the last C\u00f3rdoban caliph, \u2018Abd al-Rah.ma\u00afn IV, Spain. So began the poet\u2019s forty-year odyssey though the at whose court his father was a high-ranking official. His towns of Castile, Navarre, and, it appears, Arag\u00f3n. This first attempts to follow in his father\u2019s steps in political tragic event proved to be the turning point in Ibn Ezra\u2019s life proved unsuccessful. After the fall of C\u00f3rdoba, and personal, intellectual, and artistic life because he was some years of residence in various places, in 1016 he never able to reconcile himself to an environment that sought refuge in J\u00e1tiva, near Valencia. Between 1016 he believed was socially, culturally, and intellectually and 1023 he was minister during the short reign of the inferior to that of his native Muslim Spain. Ummayyad caliph, and after the latter\u2019s assasination Ibn H. azm was thrown into prison. Between 1027 and 1031 Ibn Ezra was, arguably, the most conservative of the he seems to have been active again in political life, from Andalusian school of Hebrew poets. He initiated no which he withdrew to turn to scholarship. major genres; his classicizing language and style are manifest in both his secular and his liturgical verse; he Ibn H. azm\u2019s education, with the best-known teach- revived, in Hebrew form, the traditional structure of the ers of his time, encompassed the Qur\u2019a\u00afn and religious neoclassical Arabic ode (qas.ida); and he was the first sciences, theology, literature, medicine, history, and Hebrew poet to compose an Arabic-style book of man- logic. He was a prolific author, with some four hundred neristic homonym poems. Even Ibn Ezra\u2019s most identifi- titles attributed to him, of which only fourteen(?) are ably personal occasional poems, the lyrical complaints extant. in which the poet laments his exile from Granada, are stylized in form and conventional in content. It would Ibn H. azm is especially well known in the West for his be incorrect to conclude, however, that his poetry is book Tawq al-hama\u00afma (The Dove\u2019s Necklace), written lacking in either originality or self-expression. On the during his exile in J\u00e1tiva and thus a work of his youth. contrary, he achieved distinction as a poet through his It is in the strictest sense a literary epistle (risa\u00afla), a creative reworking of poetic tradition and his artistic mixture of prose and his own poetry. It offers, in thirty mastery of rhetorical style. chapters, a rather nostalgic contemplation of the na- ture and experience of love, which he treats with some Apart from his literary conservatism, what imme- autobiographical references, a considerable amount of diately distinguishes Ibn Ezra from other poets of the sensuality, and a great deal of sensitivity. A book on love school are his Judeo-Arabic prose writings on Hebrew of enduring appeal, it has been incongruently compared poetry and Andalusian Jewish culture. The Book of to Ovid\u2019s and Andreas Capellanus\u2019s somewhat similar Discussion and Conversation, the most complete and works. comprehensive work on Hebrew poetics to come down from the Middle Ages, is a prescriptive and probing Of greater importance, yet lesser known, are his treatment of the legitimacy of Arabic-style Hebrew other books, works in which the image of the playful poetry. The Treatise of the Garden on Metaphorical and and sensitive youth dissipates, replaced by that of the Literal Language is a theoretical study of the nature of pious, often rigid Muslim scholar that he was. In his poetic diction as manifested in the Hebrew Bible. Along Maratib al-\u2019ulum (Categories of Sciences) he encour- with his substantial corpus of secular and devotional He- ages the study of all sciences, but with an objective that brew poetry, these works serve to identify Ibn Ezra as the is clearly religious, for in his opinion religion should embodiment of the traditions and ideals of Andalusian be the aim of all learning. Less important in his view Jewish literary intellectuals of the period. is the study of poetry, especially the lyrical (ghazal), which may lead to temptation, and the panegyrical Further Reading (madh. ), which tends toward deceitful exaggerations. His moral concerns are the topic of another book, the Pagis, D. Secular Poetry and Poetic Theory: Moses Ibn Ezra and Kita\u00af b al-akhla\u00af q wa\u2019ln\u00af-siyar (Book of Conduct) consist- His Contemporaries. Jerusalem, 1970. (In Hebrew.) ing of twelve chapters in the form of admonishments and reflections on virtuous life. Scheindlin, R. P. \u201cRabbi Moshe ibn Ezra on the Legitimacy of Poetry.\u201d In Medievalia et Humanistica, new series, Vol. 7. Ed. The most important of all Ibn H. azm\u2019s extant works by Paul M. Clogan. Cambridge, 1976. 101\u201315. is his voluminous Kita\u00af b al-fisal f\u00af\u0131\u2019 l-milal (Decision Among Religions). Aiming at demonstrating the truth Ross Brann of Islam in comparison with all other religions, Ibn H. azm writes what has been considered a treatise on comparative religion. Beginning with the religious and 341","IBN H. AZM IBN KHALDU\u00af N (1332-1406) philosophical doctrines farthest removed from the truth Born 27 May 1332 and died 16 March 1406, he is of Islam, such as the cynics for their rejection of any regarded as one of the greatest of all historians, but truth, and atheists, for their repudiation of the existence especially of the Muslim world. He developed a theory, of a God, he progresses to discuss the polytheists, as method, and philosophy of history he called \u2018umra\u00af n such Zoroastrians and Manichaeans, who recognize al-bashar\u00af\u0131, or the social study of human civilization. God but not his uniqueness. Christianity is included As a result, many credit Ibn Khaldu\u00afn with the inven- here because of the Trinitarian doctrine, which he tion of sociology. Born into a distinguished family of understands to be a form of polytheism. Judaism is, Andalus\u00ed origins in Tunisia (they had emigrated from in his view, the religion closest to Islam, except for its Seville), Ibn Khaldu\u00afn received a thorough education adulteration of the divine revelation, which he proves at home, in the mosque, and among the many Iberian with reference to such Jewish sects as the Samaritans, Muslim intellectuals who were refugees in North Africa. Sadducees, and Talmudites. His analysis of the various In 1345, his parents died of the plague, and he found religious doctrines is solidly based on textual references employment at the court of the Hafsids. For almost that show his vast erudition. thirty years thereafter, he was deeply involved in the turbulent politics of North Africa and Spain. At one Dealing with Islam, Ibn H. azm refers to its various point, he was imprisoned for his political activities. In sects, from the Mu\u2018tazilites to the Kharigites, which 1362 he went to Granada, where he was well received he sees to have in common their esoteric and allegori- by the vizier, Ibn al-Khat\u00af\u0131b. There he was enlisted to cal interpretations of the Revelation. To avoid this, the serve on a diplomatic mission to Seville and the court true Muslim must follow the obvious (z. ah\u00af\u0131r) and the of Pedro I of Castile. Disillusioned by what he found in literal meaning of the Qur\u2019a\u00afn. In this way he justifies Iberia, he returned to Tunisia, where he became ha\u00afjib, the school of the literalist Thahimites that for a time or chamberlain to the ruler. Soon embroiled again in became popular in al-Andalus. political intrigue, he decided on voluntary retirement to the oasis of Baskarah in what today is Algeria. Circum- Points of great importance in Ibn H. azm\u2019s theology stances, however, compelled him to return to politics, are harmony between faith and reason, divine predeter- even though he foresaw dangerous consequences. In mination, and free will. Possibly the most important is 1375 he withdrew again from court life to a castle in his effort to demonstrate the existence of God and the Oran, where during the course of the next five years he temporality of the world, and the necessity of divine wrote Al-Muqaddimah, his greatest work. Drawn back revelation. Because of them, Ibn H. azm is considered a into politics in 1380, his experience proved nearly fatal precursor of Christian scholasticism. and, in 1382, he left Tunis never to return. He went to Egypt, where he became a Malikite qa\u00afd. i, or judge, and Ibn H. azm exerted a great influence, and his doctrine a prominent teacher of Islamic law at Al-Azhar Uni- of literal interpretation became mainstream among the versity. Zah\u00af\u0131rites, and was continued by his followers, known as Hazmites. Of his direct students many are known in their Ibn Khaldu\u00afn\u2019s Muqaddimah serves as an introduction own right. Well known also in the Orient, Ibn H. azm was to his Universal History. Kita\u00afb al-\u2018Ibar Kita\u00afb al-\u2018Ibar praised by Al-Ghaza\u00afl\u00af\u0131, and his influence extended to the is a valuable source for the history of North Africa and end of the sixteenth century, when it disappeared under Iberia, but the Muqaddimah is a brilliant exposition of bloody persecution. In the Maghrib the favor shown to the methodological and cultural knowledge necessary his doctrines by the Almohad reformer Muhammad ibn to produce a scientific understanding of the past. Ibn Tu\u00afmart al-Mahd\u00af\u0131 helped to enhance the political influ- Khaldu\u00afn was interested primarily in the reasons for the ence of his followers in North Africa and al-Andalus. rise and fall of human civilizations; he contended that Among the most famous scholars that totally or partially the basic causes of historical evolution are to be sought followed Ibn H. azm\u2019s doctrines are the philosopher Aver- in the economic and social structure of society. In his ro\u00ebs and the mystic Ibn al-\u2018Arab\u00af\u0131. work, he emphasizes environment, politics, economics, and religion as the determining factors in the develop- Further Reading ment of societies. He surveys the sciences, refuting some like alchemy and astrology, and reflects on the manner As\u00edn Palacios, M. Abenh\u00e1zam de C\u00f3rdoba y su historia cr\u00edtica of acquiring and using them. History, like science, de las ideas religiosas. 5 vols. Madrid, 1927\u201332. involves more than a description of events, it calls for speculation, discrimination, and an attempt to identify Garc\u00eda G\u00f3mez, E. El collar de la paloma, tratado sobre el amor the true causes and origins of existing things. The his- y los amantes, de Ibn Hazm de C\u00f3rdoba. Madrid, 1952. torian needs to possess a clear knowledge of customs, Ibn H. azm. A Book Containing the Risa\u00af la Known as The Dove\u2019s Neckring. Translated by A. R. Nykl. Paris, 1931. \u2014\u2014. The Ring of the Dove. Translated by A. J. Arberry. London, 1953. Vicente Cantarino 342","social organization, and beliefs and use critical judgment IBN QUZMA\u00af N in dealing always with all the versions of the past. As such, history merits a place in the rearm of philosophy. existence of a more complete one may be inferred from While Al-Muqaddimah serves as the introduction to citations by anthologists and historians, who provide Kita\u00af b al-\u2018Ibar, in the six parts that follow Al-Muqad- a number of fragmentary, and a few complete, zajals dimah he goes on to apply his ideas to the entire history as well as Ibn Quzma\u00afn\u2019s surviving poems in classical of humankind. The work is, for the most part, a political Arabic, including one muwashsahah.a. history and is arranged around individuals, dynasties, rulers, and important events, but also includes striking Ibn Quzma\u00afn considered himself to be the master of reflections on human association as a dynamic interac- an Andalusian poetic form he did not invent, but per- tion of many motives. Ibn Khaldu\u00afn\u2019s work stands as a fected, as he immodestly claims in the prologue to the monument to the history of history itself and remains an St. Petersburg manuscript of his D\u00af\u0131wa\u00afn, though he does extremely important source of scholarship for the late express admiration for one predecessor (Ibn Numa\u00afra, medieval Maghrib and Iberia in particular. about whom next to nothing is known). The zajal is a strophic poem apparently derived from the muwashshah.: Further Reading the rhyme scheme is similar (mostly ABcccAB or AA cccAA or AA cccA, the latter differing slightly from Al-Azmeh, Aziz, Ibn Khaldu\u00af n: A Reinterpretation. London, the standard muwashshah. scheme AA(or AB) cccAA(or 1990. AB), but whereas the muwashshah. is not meant to ex- ceed five to seven strophes, the zajal may do so. The mu- Ibn Khaldu\u00afn. The Muquaddimah. 2 vols. Trans. Franz Rosenthal. wasshah. is in classical Arabic, with only the final re- Princeton, N.J., 1967. frain (kharja) in colloquial Arabic, Romance, or a mixture of both, whereas the zajal is entirely in the Mahdi, Muhsin. Ibn Khaldun\u2019s Philosophy of History: A Study Arabic dialect of C\u00f3rdoba, with an occasional sprinkling in the Philosophic Foundation of the Science of Culture. of pithy Romance words and phrases. The Arabic shows London, 1957. occasional lapses from the colloquial, probably for metrical reasons, possibly playing on different registers E. Michael Gerli or levels of style. IBN QUZMA\u00af N (ca. 1086-1160) The meter of the zajal, like that of the muwashshah. , has been the subject of virulent controversy. Most Abu\u00af Bakr Muhammad ibn \u2018Isa\u00af ibn \u2018Abd al-Malik ibn scholars who have studied Ibn Quzma\u00afn since he came Quzma\u00afn al-Asghar al-Zajja\u00afl was born in C\u00f3rdoba, prob- to light in the late nineteenth century have concluded ably just after the battle of Zalla\u00afqah (Sagrajas) in 1086, that the materical basis of his songs is closely related and died in 1160. He called himself waz\u00af\u0131r (vizir), and his to the quantitative rhythmic patterns of classical Arabic family had produced several such, as well as other minor prosody. Another group, composed mostly of Spanish dignitaries, so the title may have been authentic, though scholars, argues that the zajal is governed by syllable it was a debased coinage by his time. Little else of his count and accent, like old Spanish poetry. Given the biography is certain, even his legendary ugliness, there uncertainties involved, it is doubtful that the issue will being much confusion in the minds of later medieval as ever be proved ole way or the other, certainly not to the well as modern literary historians between him and at satisfaction of all. least one of his eponymous relatives. Much of what is commonly said to be descriptive of him and his life is The literary quality of Ibn Quzma\u00afn\u2019s zajals has not gained from the internal evidence of his poetry, which been questioned, and if his is not a \u201cvoice in the street,\u201d by definition is subject to poetic license. it is an original and vivid one. Even the long odes to the talent, good looks, and generosity of his benefactors are What we do know with certainly is that he had as not devoid of local color and vividly expressed feeling; patrons some of the more important political figures the occasional poems can be sublime, especially the love of C\u00f3rdoba, Seville, and Granada during the turbulent poems such as the famous years of his lifetime, which more or less coincided with the first seventy years of Almoravid domination. He was Now do I love you, Laleima, little star (zajal 10, I. 1) considered to be an important literary figure shortly or after his death, and even gained some renown in the Strangeness and solitude and violent passion\u2014 Arab East, despite the fact that his poetry was written Such is my lot: I am the lonely stranger! (zajal 124, principally in the dialect of southern al-Andalus and in II. 1\u20132) a form outside the normal canon of Arabic poetry. Ibn Quzma\u00afn\u2019s emotional palette ranges from pathetic, Our sources for Ibn Quzma\u00afn\u2019s work consist primarily unrequited love to graphic description of love-making of one manuscript of his D\u00af\u0131wa\u00afn (collected poems), cop- with a Berber girl. Wine, food, companionship in revelry, ied in Safad (Palestine) a century or so after the poet\u2019s music, and money or (more often) the lack thereof, as death. This is known as the \u201clesser\u201d D\u00af\u0131wa\u00af n because the of other refinements such as elegant clothes, are favorite 343","IBN QUZMA\u00af N father, who loved learning and scholarship more than politics, instilled in his son the same zest for learning and themes. His poems, even at their most conventional (the inquiry, and the two traveled about al-Andalus and Mo- long panegyrics), are well crafted, often playfully evok- rocco to seek out rare books for their literary research. ing the conventional loci of Arabic verse for the dramatic Father and son left al-Andalus in 1241 at a time when or lyrical purposes of his piece. He paints an irreplace- their political fortunes had been reversed, declaring their ably vivid picture of twelfth-century C\u00f3rdoba, a city, a intention to perform the pilgrimage, though neither ever civilization conscious that its glory days were past: returned to his native land. The father fell ill and died in Alexandria in 1242, and Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131d then proceeded Where is Ibn . . .\u2019s Lane, with its bustle? to Cairo, where he found an enthusiastic reception and Where is the Mosque Quarter, and its beauty? was admired for his scholarship and literary talents. In Laden it is with more spite than it can bear\u2014 an age of political uncertainty, Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131d\u2019s scholarship Come close! you\u2019ll see a coincided with the fervent desire of many scholars to Field to plough and seed; preserve the legacy of Arab civilization. Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131d trav- The rest infested eled extensively, and his travels took him to Arabia, Head-high with weed. (zajal 147, strophe 3 and refrain) Syria, Iraq, Iran, and Armenia. Further Reading Much of Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131d\u2019s fame rests on a multivolume work entitled Al-Mughrib fi H. ula\u00af \u2018l-Maghrib, a work An-Nawa\u00afj\u00af\u0131, Shams ad-D\u00af\u0131n Muhammad ibh Hasan. cUqu\u00af d al-la\u2019l to which he put on the finishing touches, but which in fi\u2019l-muwashshah.at wa\u2019l-azja\u00afl. Ms. Escorial 434. actuality took shape gradually over a period of about eleven decades. In 1135\u20131136, a man of letters by the Colin, G. S. \u201cIbn Kuzma\u00afn.\u201d In Encyclopaedia of Islam. New ed. name of Al-H. idja\u00afr\u00af\u0131 visited the family fortress, and the Vol. 3. Leiden, 1960. 849\u201352. great-grandfather of Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131d encouraged the visitor to compile an anthology of Andalusian poets. In this Corriente, F. Gram\u00e1tica, m\u00e9trica, y texto del cancionero his- anthology the author arranged all the poets according pano\u00e1rabe de Ab\u00e9n Quzm\u00e1n. Madrid, 1980. 69ff. to the town or district to which they belonged. Then, for over a century, the original patron, his son, his grandson, Garc\u00eda G\u00f3mez, E. Todo Ben Guzman. Madrid, 1933. and finally his great-grandson (our Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131d) sought to Gorton, T. J. \u201cThe Metre of Ibn Quzma\u00afn: A \u2018Classical\u2019 Approach.\u201d improve upon the work and to make numerous additions. In its final form it came to deal with the literary history Journal of Arabic Literature 6 (1975), 1\u201329. and geography of not only al-Andalus, but of North \u2014\u2014. \u201cBack to Ibn Quzma\u00afn.\u201d In Cultures in Contact in Medi- Africa, Sicily, and Egypt, as well. The section devoted to al-Andalus, conserved in almost its entirety, gives eval Spain: Historical and Literary Essays Presented to L. P. brief geographical descriptions of each area as well as Harvey. Eds. D. Hook and B. Taylor. London, 1990. 103\u201309. biographical notes of important personages, seasoned Gunzburg, D. de. Le Divan d\u2019Ibn Guzman: Texte, traduction, with anecdotes and poetical excerpts. Aside from its commentaire. Fasc. 1, Le Texte d\u2019apr\u00e8s le manuscrit unique literary value, this work tells us much about the intel- du Mus\u00e9e imp\u00e9rial de St-P\u00e9tersbourg. Berlin, 1896. lectual and social life of al-Andalus up until the time of Monroe, J. T. \u201cRomance Prosody in the Poetry of Ibn Quzma\u00afn.\u201d the work\u2019s completion. Drawing principally on materials In Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics. Vol. 6, Papers from the from this anthology, Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131d composed short works Sixth Annual Symposium on Arabic Linguistics. Ed. Mushira for patrons on given topics or themes. There have come Eid et al. Amsterdam, 1994, 63\u201387. down to us several volumes of a companion work to Al- Nykl, A. R. (ed.) El cancionero de Ab\u00e9n Guzm\u00e1n. Madrid, Mughrib identical in format, dealing with the literary 1933. history of the Arab East, and originally conceived of by Stern, S. M. Hispano-Arabic Strophic Poetry. Ed. L. P. Harvey. Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131d\u2019s father. Oxford, 1974. Ch. 4. Though Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131d\u2019s d\u00af\u0131wa\u00afn has been lost, a number T. J. Gorton of his poems have come down to us. His poetry is conventional in many ways; nevertheless, his verses of IBN SA\u2018I\u00afD, ABU\u00af \u2018L-H. ASAN \u2018ALI\u00af B. MU\u00af SA\u00af nostalgia recalling the days of his youth in al-Andalus B. MUH. AMMAD B. \u2018ABD AL-MALIK B. speak of a heartfelt yearning to return and are rich in SA\u2018I\u00afD (1208\/13\u20131286) many imaginative images often succeeding one another in an almost dizzying kaleidoscopic fashion. Poet, traveler and adventurer, geographer, literary histo- rian and anthologist, Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131 is recognized as a leading Even though Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131d\u2019s contributions to literary exponent of Andalusian culture of the thirteenth century. history are remarkable, no less so is the geographical He was bora into a noble family ofYemeni ancestry that, information he either recorded from personal observa- during the period of the T. a\u00af\u2019ifas, came to govern a for- tress at the present site of Alcal\u00e1 la Real to the northwest of Granada. Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131d\u2019s grandfather had served as wa\u00af l\u00af\u0131 (governor) of both Seville and Granada, and his father apparently left the family fortress definitively in 1224 to become wa\u00afl\u00af\u0131 of Algeciras. Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131d spent much of his youth at Seville, the leading intellectual center of al-Andalus at the time, where he studied under the tute- lage of many of the outstanding scholars of his day. His 344","tion or culled from the sources he consulted in libraries IBN ZAYDU\u00af N throughout the many countries he visited. Among works attributed to him are travel accounts and a number of themes of separation because of her rejection and with geographical and historical treatises. his imprisonment, which probably had to do with his political aspirations. He fled from prison and then tried Further Reading to entice Walla\u00afda to join him. Arberry, A. J. Moorish Poetry: A Translation of the Pennants, an Ibn Zaydu\u00afn\u2019s most famous poems spring from this Anthology Compiled in 1243 by the Andalusian Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131d. era: the Nu\u00af n\u00af\u0131ya and his memories in the garden of Cambridge, 1953. Med\u00af\u0131nat al-Zahra\u00af. In the Nu\u00afn\u00af\u0131ya, he tries to induce his beloved to go with him. With the repeated rhyme na, Ari\u00e9, R. \u201cUn lettr\u00e9 andalou en Ifriqiya et en Orient au XIIIe si\u00e8cle: meaning \u201cus,\u201d in addition to the frequent use of the sixth Ibn Sa\u2018\u00af\u0131d.\u201d In L\u2019occident musulman au bas Moyen Age. Ed. verbal form, suggesting mutuality, he endows language R. Ari\u00e9. Paris, 1992. forms and the accepted poetic code (monorhyme) with the suggestive power to express his hope. Numerous oth- Dustin Cowell er acoustic and structural patterns that are derived from the tradition of classical Arabic literature are creatively IBN ZAYDU\u00af N (1003-1071) employed to support the poetic message in subtle ways. In his famous poem from Al-Zahra\u00af, he uses the acoustic Abu\u2019 l-Walid Ahmad ibn \u2019Abdullah ibn Ahmad ibn effects of the rhyme aqa, which together with frequent Ghalib al-Makhzumi ibn Zaydu\u00afn was born in C\u00f3rdoba other guttural sounds reflects the melancholy, dark mood in 1003, and died in Seville in 1071. He became famous of yearning in a way that could not be achieved through as one of the best neoclassical poets in al-Andalus, and rational verbalization alone. more specifically for his love poetry to the Umayyad princess Walla\u00afda. The fact that three editions of his Ibn Zaydu\u00afn\u2019s use of concepts goes far beyond a beau- D\u00af\u0131wa\u00afn, two of them also containing his letters, are avail- tiful reworking of well-known images. Traditionally able attests to his popularity among his contemporaries parts of nature were often compared to the beloved\u2019s as well as twentieth-century Arabs who edited them. beauty. Ibn Zaydu\u00afn, however, humanizes and spiritual- izes nature by describing it as capable of feelings and Ibn Zaydu\u00afn was born into an illustrious family of their manifestations. For instance, the breeze becomes Arab origin during a period of great cultural splendor a friendly spirit sympathizing with the lover\u2019s sickness, in Muslim Spain that was also the beginning of an era and the flowers drooping under the morning dew are of political instability. He was in a position to acquire weeping with him. an extensive education in literary culture, specifically classical Arabic literature, and he started writing his own Ibn Zaydu\u00af n also incorporates many Neoplatonic verse when he was very young. He was first publicly spiritual ideas into his love poetry, including love as the recognized at the age of nineteen for a long elegy upon upsurge of the soul, love having its seat in the soul, and the death of one of his teachers, Ibn Dha\u00afqwan, whom the purity of love, which\u2014in its mixture with sensual- he admired very much. ity\u2014is quite different from central European courtly love poetry. After Caliph Al-Mustakfi was killed in 1025, his un- conventional daughter Walla\u00afda, herself a poet, became After an extended exile Ibn Zaydu\u00af n was granted the center of C\u00f3rdoba\u2019s literary circles, in which Ibn permission to return to C\u00f3rdoba, where he became court Zaydu\u00afn played an active part. Poems tracing the stages poet at the age of thirty-eight. He left C\u00f3rdoba again, of his love for Walla\u00afda dominate the greatest part of however, and spent his last years at the court of Seville, Ibn Zaydu\u00afn\u2019s ensuing literary work and also show its as court adviser and poet of panegyrics. In the last year most original poetic aspects, though he also drew on his of his life, he was able to return to C\u00f3rdoba in triumph extensive literary training to produce erudite, beautifully because his patron, Al-Mut\u2018amid, took over the city. crafted poems in a more traditional style, such as one qas.\u00af\u0131da against his rival Ibn Abdu\u00afs. Ibn Zaydu\u00afn enriched the tradition of classical Arabic poetry with his conceptual innovativeness and his cre- In his love poetry Ibn Zaydu\u00afn uses many stock themes ative use of accepted acoustic and structural elements. of courtly love poetry as well as the poetic code of clas- sical Arabic poetry, but he excels in endowing them with See also Walla\u00af dah Bint Al-Mustafki new suggestive power and poetic intensity. His first poems give expression to happy union, the elevation of Further Reading the beloved, and the submission of the lover to the point where a glance is enough and he is even ready to die Cour, A. Un Po\u00e8te arabe d\u2019Andalousie: Ibn Zaidoun. Constantine, for her. Their union is threatened only by \u201cthe envious\u201d Algeria, 1920. and \u201cslanderers.\u201d Soon, however, his poems deal with Lug, S. Poetic Techniques and Conceptual Elements in Ibn Zaydu\u00afn\u2019s Love Poetry. Washington, D.C., 1982. Sieginde Lug 345","IBN ZUHR, ABU\u00af MARWA\u00af N \u2018ABD AL-MA\u00af LIK interest Abu\u00af Marwa\u00afn had in practical pharmacology: it consists of a collection of recipes for the preparation of IBN ZUHR, ABU\u00af MARWA\u00af N \u2018ABD compounded drugs (syrups, electuaries, pills, ointments, AL-MA\u00af LIK (1092?\u20131161?) and so on). To this list one should, perhaps, add the Al- Tadhkira f\u00af\u0131-l-adwa\u00af\u2019al-mushila wa ghayri-ha\u00af (Memento Called Avenzoar in Latin translations, he was one of on Laxative and Nonlaxative Drugs), a short treatise the most important physicians in the history of al- ascribed by G. S. Colin to Abu\u00af -l-\u2018Ala\u00af Zuhr, though Andalus. Born circa 1092 into an important family of Khat. t. a\u00afb\u0131 has given, recently, arguments in favor of physicians: his grandfather, \u2018Abd Al-Ma\u00aflik ibn Zuhr Abu\u00af Marwa\u00afn\u2019s authorship. It is a work that shows that its (d. ca. 1078) studied medicine in Cairo and, when he author had a solid knowledge in pharmaceutical theory returned, became personal doctor to al-Muja\u00afhid, king and a very cautious attitude toward the administration of the .ta\u00af\u2019ifa (free kingdom) of Denia (ca. 1010\u20131045). of drugs to patients. His father, Abu\u00af-l-\u2018Ala\u00af\u2019 Zuhr, served as a physician to King al-Mu\u2018tamid of Seville (1069\u20131091) and, later, See also Averro\u00ebs, Abu \u2018L-Walid Muhammad B. to the Almoravids Yu\u00af suf ibn Tashf\u00af\u0131n (d. 1106) and Ahmad B. Rushd \u2018Ali ibn Yu\u00afsuf (d. 1143). Abu\u00af Marwa\u00afn was born and died in Seville but after 1120 spent a good part of his Further Reading life in Marra\u00afkesh, where he inherited his father\u2019s post as royal physician to \u2018Ali ibn Yu\u00afsuf. Difficulties with Arn\u00e1ldez, R. \u201cIbn Zuhr.\u201d In Encyclop\u00e9die de l\u2019Islam. Vol. 3. this emir, due to obscure reasons, took him into prison Leyden-Paris, 1971, 1001\u201303. (ca. 1131\u2013ca. 1140). With the arrival of the Almohads he became, once more and until his death, personal Colin, G. S., La Tedhkira d\u2019Aboul \u2019Ala\u00af\u2019. Paris, 1911. physician to Caliph \u2018Abd al-Mu\u2019min (1130\u20131163). His Khat. t. a\u00afbi, M. A. al-T. i\u00afbb wa-l-a.tibba\u2019 f\u00af\u0131\u2019-l-Andalus, Vol. 1. son, Abu\u00af Bakr (1113\u20131199), served in the same way to Caliph Ya\u2018qu\u00afb al-Mans.u\u00afr (1184\u20131199). Beirut, 1988. 277\u2013317. Ibn Zuhr, A. Tays\u00af\u0131r, Ed. M. Khu\u00afri. Damascus, 1983. Unlike his friend, the famous philosopher and physi- cian Ibn Rushd (Averro\u00eb\u2019s), and following his family Julio Sams\u00f3 tradition, his attitude toward medicine is essentially practical and his works always contain case records IMMANUEL ROMANO and other observations drawn from his own personal (c. 1265 to 1331) experience or from that of other members of his family. Among his extant works, a few merit special attention. Immanuel Roman (Immanuele Giudeo; in Hebrew Kita\u00afb al-iqtis.ad f\u00af\u0131 is. la\u00af h. al-anfus wa-l-ajsa\u00af d (On the Immanu\u2019el ha-Rom\u00ee) was a Jewish philosopher and Adequate Way to Treat Souls and Bodies) is a collection comic poet. He was the son of Rabbi Salomone of the of texts of approximately equal length, written when the Sifronide (Zi-fron\u00ee) family and was raised in the Jewish author was about thirty years old, to be read to prince community of Rome. Immanuel lived in Ancona, Gub- Ibrah\u00af\u0131m Ibn Yu\u00afsuf Ibn Tashf\u2019\u00af\u0131n, Almoravid governor bio, and Verona; worked as a tutor for wealthy Jewish of Seville, to whom Abu\u00af Marwa\u00afn was introduced in families in Fabriano and Fermo; and was a member of 1031. It deals with (zina) (cosmetics), i.e., the different a group of Jewish philosophers centered in Rome and ways to preserve and embellish the external parts of headed by Jehud\u00e0 Romano (Lionello). the human body, including plastic surgery and sexual hygiene, to which Abu\u00af Marwa\u00afn adds a handbook on Immanuel\u2019s philosophical writings take the form of pathology that deals with the description and treatment biblical commentaries in Hebrew. He also wrote, again of all known diseases classified \u201cfrom head to toe.\u201d Kita\u00afb in Hebrew, a treatise on hermeneutics and a collection al-tays\u00af\u0131r f\u00af\u0131\u2019 l-muda\u00af wa\u00af wa-l-tadb\u00af\u0131r (Simplification of of poetry, Mekhabb\u00e9r\u00f4th, inspired by Dante\u2019s Divine Medical Treatment with Drugs and Diet), written after Comedy. In Mekhabb\u00e9r\u00f4th, Immanuel narrates a journey 1147 as an attempt by a cultivated, mature physician to to the inferno and to paradise under the guidance of improve the quality of the purely practical therapeutical the prophet Daniel. Immanuel also wrote, in the Italian treatises known as kunna\u00af sh, is an excellent handbook vernacular, three sonnets, a tenzone, and a frottola he of pathology and therapeutics for the daily use of the called Bisbidis. In his first sonnet, Amor non lesse mai practicing physician written by a man with both a long l\u2019avemaria (\u201cLove never read the Ave Maria\u201d), he de- medical experience and an excellent knowledge of clares that love observes no particular faith or religion; medical theory. Kita\u00afb al-ja\u00afmi\u2018f\u00af\u0131\u2019l-ashriba wa-l-ma\u2018fa\u00afjin he thus takes issue with poets such as the stilnovists who (A Comprehensive List of Syrups and Electuaries), depict love in Christian terms. The other two sonnets written\u2014like his Kita\u00af b al-aghdhiya (On Food)\u2014for reiterate Immanuel\u2019s pragmatic view of life: he vows to Caliph \u2018Abd al-Mu\u2019min, it is usually considered a kind support whatever political faction or religion happens to of appendix to the Tays\u00af\u0131r, and both appear together in be in power. In the tenzone, Bosone da Gubbio invites the edition by M. Khu\u00afri (Damascus, 1983). It proves the Immanuel to mourn the deaths of Dante and of his lady: Duo lumi son di novo spenti al mondo (\u201cTwo lights are 346","again extinguished on earth\u201d). Immanuel responds per INNOCENT III, POPE le rime (with matching rhymes) in Io, che trassi le lag- rime del fondo (\u201cI who draw up tears from the depths\u201d). decretalist Huguccio (Uguccione da Pisa), whom he Bisbidis, in a kinetic, onomatopoeic style, depicts life at treated with deference even after becoming pope. the court of Cangrande della Scala of Verona. Innocent (then Lothario) completed his formal educa- See also Dante Alighieris tion when he was in his mid-twenties and soon thereafter appeared at Rome, where he became a member of the Further Reading papal curia. He was ordained a subdeacon by Pope Gregory VIII in 1187; and in 1190, at about age thirty, Editions he was named cardinal deacon of Saints Sergius and Bacchus by Pope Clement III. Jarden, D., ed. The Cantos of Immanuel of Rome, 2 vols. Jerusa- lem, 1957. (In Hebrew.) During his years in the curia he wrote three treatises on moral questions. The best-known of these is On the Marti, Mario. Poeti giocosi del tempo di Dante. Milan: Rizzoli, Misery of the Human Condition (De miseria humanae 1956, pp. 315\u2013327. conditionis), an extended reflection on the sinfulness of humankind, our utter unworthiness of salvation, Mass\u00e8ra, Aldo Francesco, ed. Sonetti burleschi e realistici dei and our dependence on the undeserved mercy that God primi due secoli. Bari: Laterza, 1920. (Rev. Luigi Russo, bestows on us. This became a medieval best-seller; it 1940. See Vol. l, pp. 145\u2013147.) was by far the most widely read of Innocent\u2019s writings and survives in some 600 manuscripts. In addition, Vitale, Maurizio, ed. Rimatori comico-realistici. Turin: UTET, before his pontificate he completed two other spiritual 1956, pp. 539\u2013560. (Reprint, 1976.) treatises: On the Mysteries of the Mass and On the Four Kinds of Marriage. Studies Pope Celestine III died on 8 January 1198; before Bruni, Francesco. \u201cBene comune, spirito di parte, indifferentismo that day was over Cardinal Lothario dei Segni had been nella cultura toscana medievale e in Immanuel Romano.\u201d elected to succeed him. At his coronation six weeks later In Studi di italianistica in onore di Giovanni Cecchetti, ed. the new pope took the name Innocent III. During the Paolo Cherchi and Michelangelo Picone. Ravenna: Longo, weeks between his election and his coronation, he had 1988, pp. 39\u201355. been busy reorganizing the curia and dealing with the political opportunities that the death of Emperor Henry Mandelbaum, Allen. \u201cA Millennium of Hebrew Poetry in Italy.\u201d VI had created in the papal states. In Gardens and Ghettos: The Art of Jewish Life in Italy, ed. Vivian B. Mann. Berkeley: University of California Press, During the nineteen years of his pontificate Innocent 1989, pp. 191\u2013207. (Exhibition catalog, Jewish Museum, III was to remain deeply involved in political affairs in New York.) Europe and throughout the Mediterranean world. His active pursuit of political goals was consistent with his Rinaldi, Giovanni, and Fabrizio Beggiato. \u201cImmanuele Giudeo.\u201d exalted view of the papacy as the supreme representa- In Enciclopedia dantesca, 6 vols. Rome: Istituto della Enci- tive of divine authority in the world and of himself as clopedia Italiana, 1970\u20131978. God\u2019s principal agent in human affairs. The pope, he declared, was God\u2019s chief minister, \u201cset between God Joan H. Levin and man, lower than God but higher than man, who judges all and is judged by no one.\u201d Innocent believed INNOCENT III, POPE that as pope he had not merely a right but an obligation (1160 or 1161\u201316 July 1216) to intervene wherever God\u2019s interests were violated or God\u2019s plans, as the pope saw them, were in danger of Innocent III (Lothario dei Conti di Segni, Lothar of being thwarted. Segni) is often described as the most powerful of the medieval popes; he was certainly one of the most It was entirely consistent with these beliefs that In- ambitious of all the Roman popes in his assertion of nocent should pursue active political goals in every part papal authority. He was born into the noble house of of the world he knew. As the guardian of Frederick of the counts of Segni; his parents were Count Trasimund Hohenstaufen, the son and putative successor of Henry and Clarissa, the daughter of a powerful Roman family. VI, Innocent intervened repeatedly and actively in the From an early age, the boy was destined for a clerical political maelstrom that swept through the empire in career. He began his formal education at Rome, where the early thirteenth century. When the German electors he studied under Abbot Peter Ismael in the monastery failed to agree on the successor to Henry VI, Innocent at of Saint Andrew in Celio. He continued his studies in first supported the Guelf candidate, Otto IV; then, when the liberal arts and theology at Paris, where he was a Otto failed to observe the commitments he had made pupil of Peter of Corbeil and perhaps also of Peter the about the management of the empire\u2019s Italian territories, Chanter. Later, for a time, he was a student at Bologna, Innocent switched allegiance and actively promoted the although it is unclear what he studied there. Innocent has often been called a lawyer-pope. There is little in his known writing to support this description; but if he was trained in law, as tradition has it, he almost certainly received that training at Bologna, perhaps from the great 347","INNOCENT III, POPE the Christian world. This council met in Rome from 11 to 30 November 1215, after more than two years of claims of his ward, young Frederick II, who ultimately energetic preparations. Its agenda included a wide array secured the imperial title, in part as a consequence of of measures designed to reform the church and to meet Innocent\u2019s support. The new emperor\u2019s gratitude was the challenges that the pope and his advisers saw fac- deeply (and understandably) tinged with suspicion, ing it. Among these were repressing heresy (the council however, and his relations with the pope deteriorated authorized vigorous new measures against heretics), perceptibly during the latter years of Innocent\u2019s life. reforming the clergy and enforcing clerical discipline more strictly, establishing a minimum wage for the Innocent III was also intensely involved in French clergy, restructuring judicial procedure by abolishing and English politics. In France Innocent had to deal ordeals as a means of proof, improving the morals of with the intricate problems raised by the desire of King the laity by requiring every Christian to make an annual Philip Augustus to annul his marriage with his second confession of sins and receive communion, institut- wife, Ingeborg of Denmark, and marry Agnes of Meran. ing a sweeping reform of the church\u2019s marriage law, The case not only raised complex questions of canon and numerous other measures, seventy in all, that the law but was also fraught with touchy diplomatic issues. council formally adopted at its solemn closing session. Ultimately Innocent prevented Philip from divorcing The Fourth Lateran Council was thus a major effort to Ingeborg, but he compromised with the king on the reshape the Christian west, the culmination of Innocent essential question of the succession to the throne by Ill\u2019s grand design to place a newly reinvigorated church legitimizing Philip and Agnes\u2019s two children. Innocent at the center of European life and power. was simultaneously engaged in a struggle with King John of England over royal control of English bishoprics See also Frederick II; Henry VI; Peter the Chanter and, in particular, the succession of Stephen Langton to the archbishopric of Canterbury. The pope placed Further Reading England under an interdict and forced John to back down, surrender his crown to Innocent, and then receive Editions it back as a papal fief. Migne, J.-P. Patrologia Latina, Vols. 214\u2013217. Innocent\u2019s concept of papal power led him to spon- Regestum Innocentii III papae super negatio Romani imperii, sor military campaigns on many fronts against the foes of Christendom. He strongly encouraged German ed. Friedrich Kempf. Rome: Pontificia Universit\u00e0 Gregori- colonization and the forcible conversion of pagans in ana, 1947. the eastern Baltic, and he endowed these colonizing Die Register Innocenz III, ed. Othmar Hageneder and Anton expeditions with the privileges of a crusade. He pro- Haidacher. Graz and Cologne: B\u00f6hlaus, 1964\u2013. claimed other crusades in the Middle East. One of these, called the Fourth Crusade, made war on the Byzantine Studies Empire\u2014instead of attacking Egypt as Innocent had expected\u2014and, to Innocent\u2019s dismay, captured and Imkamp, Wilhelm. Das Kirchenbild Innocenz\u2019III. (1198\u20131216). looted Constantinople, the capital of the largest Christian Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 1983. power of the eastern Mediterranean. Undeterred by this, the pope set in motion a further crusade against Egypt, Kuttner, Stephan, and Ant\u00f3nio Garc\u00eda y Garc\u00eda. \u201cA New Eyewit- often called the Fifth Crusade; it achieved a short-lived ness Account of the Fourth Lateran Council.\u201d Traditio, 20, success when the crusaders briefly captured Damietta, 1964, pp. 115\u2013178. although Innocent himself did not live to see this. Inno- cent also used the mechanism of the crusade in Europe Laufs, Manfred. Politik und Recht bei Innozenz III.: Kaiser- when he launched the first of a series of attacks that privilegien, Thronstreitregister, und Egerer Goldbulle in came to be known as the Albigensian Crusade against der Reichs- und Rekuperationspolitik Papst Innozenz\u2019 III. Cathar heretics in the south of France. Cologne: B\u00f6hlau, 1980. Innocent was also busy with the internal affairs of Luchaire,Achille. Innocent III, 6 vols. Paris: Hachette, 1905\u20131908. the church establishment. He spent many hours each Maccarrone, Michele. Chiesa e stato nella dottrina di Innocenzo day sitting as judge in disputes that had been referred to the papal court from every part of the Christian III. Rome: Facultas Theologica Pontificii Athenaei Latera- world. He actively promoted and encouraged new nensis, 1940. orders of religious men and women, most notably the Pennington, Kenneth. \u201cThe Legal Education of Pope Innocent Dominican and Franciscan friars, as well as numerous III.\u201d Bulletin of Medieval Canon Law, 4, 1974, pp. 70\u201377. smaller groups. Roscher, Helmut. Papst Innocenz III. und die Kreuzz\u00fcge. G\u00f6t- tingen: Vandenhoeck u. Ruprecht, 1969. The climax of Innocent\u2019s pontificate, in many ways, Tillmann, H\u00e9i\u00e8ne. Papst Innocenz II. Bonn: L. Rohrscheid, 1954. was the Fourth Lateran Council, a great meeting of bishops, abbots, and other prelates from throughout James A. Brundage INNOCENT IV, POPE (c. 1190\u20131254, r. 25 June 1243\u20137 December 1254) Pope Innocent IV (Sinibaldo Fieschi) was born in Ge- noa. He was a descendant of the counts of Lavagna, who had traditionally supported the emperor rather than the 348","pope, even though they themselves produced two popes ISABEAU OF BAVARIA (Innocent IV and later Adrian V) and several cardinals. After studying canon law at Bologna, he became a no- his own decretal letters, accompanied by his commen- table canonist. He joined the Roman curia under Pope tary as a canonist. Because of its intrinsic worth and its Honorius III in 1226; and under Pope Gregory IX he authoritativeness, Innocent was called \u201cfather of law\u201d was appointed vice-chancellor of the Roman church, by later generations of canonists. Innocent strove to cardinal priest of Saint Lawrence in Lucina, and rector promote learning by protecting students in every way. of the March of Ancona. He succeeded Celestine IV He also helped establish schools and universities, such (whose papacy had lasted less than a month) following as the University of Valencia; instituted schools of theol- a two-year vacancy during which Emperor Frederick ogy and of canon and civil law at Lyon and at Naples; II Hohenstuafen had prevented the election of a new founded the University of Piacenza; and granted special pope. Innocent IV\u2019s choice of his papal name reflected privileges to the University of Toulouse. a desire to continue in the wake of his great predeces- sor, Innocent III. During his pontificate Innocent had to resolve im- portant issues between factions concerning the internal The struggle between the papacy and the empire life of the church. He favored the secular clergy at the reached a climax during the pontificate of Innocent IV. University of Paris during their struggle with the men- In order to escape imperial domination, the pope was dicants. In a divisive conflict between Conventuals and forced in 1244 to flee to Lyon, where he came under Spirituals in the Franciscan order, he sided with the the protection of the French king Louis IX and where Conventuals: in 1254 he issued the papal bull Ordinem he remained until 1251. Innocent called the first general veterem, according to which Franciscans were allowed council of Lyon (the thirteenth general council of the to use money and possessions because the pope himself church) in 1245, to consider and solve several pressing assumed ownership of such property. problems. The sentence of excommunication against Frederick II was renewed: the charges against Freder- Contemporary evidence makes it certain that it ick included perjury, suspicion of heresy, and failure to was Innocent IV who bestowed on the cardinals their heed his excommunication. Innocent pressed the princes distinctive red hat, a symbol they have maintained for of the empire to elect a new king and emperor. Henry centuries. Innocent sent missionaries to the far east to Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, was elected to replace convert the Mongols, and the Franciscan John of Pian the deposed Frederick in May 1246. After Henry Raspe dei Carpini paid a visit to the court of the great khan in died in 1247, William, count of Holland, was elected. 1246. Innocent\u2019s favors to his family, and particularly Frederick then threatened to capture the pope. Evidence to his nephews, made him famous (or notorious) for to implicate Innocent in an attempted assassination of introducing nepotism into church matters. The eventual Frederick in 1246 is inconclusive; but since Frederick victory of the papacy over the empire ended the ambi- was deemed a tyrant and a heretic, medieval law and tions of the Hohenstaufen to create a centralized state thought would have justified his elimination. His excom- by uniting Sicily and northern Italy. munication was renewed again in 1248. This struggle continued after Frederick died (of natural causes) in See also Frederick II 1250 and his illegitimate son Manfred became regent of Sicily. Further Reading Innocent IV took an unwavering stand concerning Berger, Elie. Saint Louis et Innocent IV: \u00c9tude sur les rapports the temporal political power of the papacy. He affirmed de la France et du saint-si\u00e8ge. Paris: Thorin, 1893. that secular power was not ordained by God and was therefore tyrannical. Pontifical power, on the other Enciclopedia Cattolica. Florence: Sansoni, 1950. hand, represented a culmination not only of religious Mann, Horace K. The Lives of the Popes in the Middle Ages. sacerdotal government but also of secular imperial government. These claims did not, in their full extent, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner; Saint Louis, Mo., become a generally accepted part of the teaching of the Herder, 1925. Catholic church. Melloni, Alberto. Innocenzo IV: La concezione e l\u2019esperienza della cristianit\u00e0 come regimen unius personae. Prefazione Innocent IV was a patron of legal studies and was di Brian Tierney. Genoa: Marietti, 1990. himself a canonist. He added several decretals to those The New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed. Detroit, Mich.: Thom- of Gregory IX, and his legal reputation rests for the son-Gale, 2003. most part on his Commentaria in quinque libros decre- Strayer, Joseph R., ed. Dictionary of the Middle Ages. NewYork: talium, a subtle and sophisticated, although sometimes Scribner, 1983. obscure, commentary on the Decretales. The unique feature of this work is that Innocent included some of Alessandro Vettori ISABEAU OF BAVARIA (ca. 1370\u20131435) Queen of France. Born to Stephen, duke of Bavaria, and Taddea Visconti, Isabeau married Charles VI of France 349","ISABEAU OF BAVARIA Section de Philologie et d\u2019Histoire jusqu\u2019\u00e0 1610 (1979): 117\u201348. on July 17, 1385. Charles VI had fallen in love with her Kimm, Heidrun. Isabeau de Bavi\u00e8re, reine de France, 1370\u20131435. at their first meeting on July 14 and married her without Munich: Stadtarchiv M\u00fcnchen, 1969. a marriage contract or dowry. Their relationship was Thibault, Marcel. Isabeau de Bavi\u00e8re, reine de France: la jeunesse troubled by his schizophrenia, which caused him to have 1370\u20131405. Paris: Perrin, 1903. an ambivalent attitude toward her. Isabeau was adept at politics, and on July 1, 1402, Charles empowered her to Richard C. Famiglietti deal with government business in his absence, aided by the dukes and whichever counselors she wished, but her ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, SAINT prerogative was tempered in April 1403, when a group (ca. 560-636) of royal ordinances attempted to achieve a balance of power among the royal relatives. Isidore, born in the 560s, was the younger brother of Leander, bishop of Seville from 576, who met Pope In 1405, Isabeau\u2019s court was accused of moral cor- Gregory I the Great at Constantinople about 580 and ruption and the queen herself was rebuked for instigating subsequently played a central part in the official conver- extravagant fashions by Jacques Legrand, an Augus- sion of the Visigothic state from Arianism to Catholicism tinian friar. Until recently, historians have considered (589). The southern fringe of the Iberian Peninsula was her frivolous and, more significantly, involved in an under Byzantine influence after 552, and Isidore\u2019s fam- adulterous relationship with her brother-in-law, Louis ily, from Cartagena, may have been of Greek descent. of Orl\u00e9ans. The accusation of adultery first appeared in He was probably born in Seville. There was a sister, the anti-dauphin Paris of 1422\u201329, as part of an effort to Florentina, and an intermediate brother, Fulgentius. throw doubts on the paternity of Charles VII. The myth The Catholic conversion offered a potent prospect of found expression in the Pastoralet, a poem composed achieving religious and political unity, in which Isidore at that time to glorify John the Fearless of Burgundy, was the single most influential intellectual figure. He recently murdered at the dauphin\u2019s command. succeeded to the bishopric about 601, and presided over the influential Second Council of Seville (619) and the Politically, Isabeau was quite unsupportive of Louis seminal Fourth Council of Toledo (633), which, among of Orl\u00e9ans until late 1404 or 1405, and she opposed other things, threatened excommunication for opponents John the Fearless until he rescued her from the exile of the king, at a time when kings had come to feel the imposed by the Armagnacs (Orl\u00e9anist party) in 1417. need for episcopal legitimization. Her objective from 1409 until that time had been to set up her eldest son as a replacement for the king during Isidore died on 4 April 636. His main professional his periods of illness and thus keep the power to govern aim had been to consolidate the doctrinal, political, and within the immediate royal family and away from the intellectual triumphs of Catholicism, and he succeeded warring dukes. In January 1418, viewing the king and in inspiring what is sometimes called the \u201cVisigothic dauphin as prisoners of the Armagnacs in Paris, Isabeau Renaissance\u201d; the realm was not as united, educated, formed a rival government with John the Fearless in and Catholic as subsequent myth came to suggest, but Troyes. The Burgundian invasion of Paris in May 1418 it was the most educated part of western Europe, and produced a rapprochement between the king and queen Isidore deserves large credit for that. His personality is but caused the departure of the dauphin, breaking the largely indecipherable, although D\u00edaz y D\u00edaz decided familial link that was essential to save the independence that he was shy, lacking in confidence, eager to please, of the monarchy. Isabeau played an important role in and obsessively hardworking. Braulio of Zaragoza, his the negotiations that led to the Treaty of Troyes (1420), biographer, said that his eloquence would move any and her policy of this period, aimed at protecting the kind of hearer. monarchy, was long misinterpreted by historians as anti-French. Isabeau died at the H\u00f4tel Saint-Pol in Paris Isidore\u2019s intellectual education was largely in the in 1435. hands of Leander, who built up the episcopal library (with the works of Augustine, Gregory, African gram- See also Charles VI marians, etc.). Isidore\u2019s 633 council required all bish- ops to run schools, and he felt a didactic need to raise Further Reading educational levels; part of his success was that Spanish Christian education and culture remained in his tradi- Famiglietti, R.C. Royal Intrigue: Crisis at the Court of Charles tion for another five centuries. After his death he slowly VI 1392\u20131420. New York: AMS, 1986. metamorphosed from intellectual into saint; his body was translated to Le\u00f3n in 1063 as part of Fernando I\u2019s Grandeau, Yann. \u201cLes derni\u00e8res ann\u00e9es d\u2019Isabeau de Bavi\u00e8re.\u201d affirmation of links with the glorious Gothic past, 4 Cercle Arch\u00e9ologique et Historique de Valenciennes 9 (1976): April was given a special office bearing his name, and, 411\u201328. \u2014\u2014. \u201cIsabeau de Bavi\u00e8re, ou l\u2019amour conjugal.\u201d Actes du 102e Congr\u00e8s National des Soci\u00e9t\u00e9s Savantes, Limoges 1977, 350","as \u201cEsidre,\u201d he was invoked as a national patron (e.g., ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, SAINT three times by Alfonso VI in the Poema de M\u00edo Cid). He was named doctor of the church in 1722. The Etymologiae is an enormous encyclopedia, of both objectively erudite and pastorally didactic intent, Outside the peninsula, Isidore\u2019s historical and institu- meant to preserve and convey an all-inclusive synthe- tional importance was rarely understood, and he became sis of all fields of knowledge available in respectably a mere name appended to influential texts. Surviving ancient texts, with added comments from Isidore\u2019s early manuscripts are from Irish, English, and Gaulish, own experience to make it relevant to his readers; it is rather than Iberian, centers. The works are listed here mostly, therefore, written in the present tense, referring in tentative chronological order (the precise titles are to fifty-two classical authors and only twenty Christian often later inventions). The De differentiis verborum, ones (plus the Bible). Braulio advised readers to read on semantic distinctions, may precede his episcopacy. it through entire, often and carefully, and then they The De differentiis rerum was prepared independently. would know everything; thus it is prepared in a simpler The In libros veteris ac novi testamenti proemia and style than many Visigothic works. The title is explained the De ortu et obitu patrum are biblical and doctrinal; by Isidore\u2019s persistent attempts to explain why words the De ecclesiasticis officiis is still a vital source of have the written form they do; in modern terms, this is evidence on the history of the liturgy and the differ- \u201cpopular etymology\u201d (largely accidental word associa- ent roles of contemporary clerics. The Synonyma, an tion given unconvincingly mystical explanatory force), ascetic confession of and repentance for sins (ca. 610), not philology. developed the eventually fashionable style for piling up synonyms. The De natura rerum, commissioned by The Etymologiae was probably begun about 615, the Visigothic king Sisebut about 613, combines pagan and a preliminary version of probably ten books (titled (Lucretian) and Christian views on cosmography (and Origines) was circulating by 621. It is much more than related allegory). a traditional glossary since, in essence, it presents an accumulation of compartmentalized detail rather than The De numeris considers the symbolism of numbers overviews, it is possible to deduce that Isidore worked found in biblical texts. The Allegoriae quaedam sacrae with a kind of index-card system, preparing lemmas first scripturae comments on nearly three hundred biblical and adding details as he found them later; this would characters; the De haeresibus, on eighty-four sects. The explain both why several subheadings are left unex- Sententiae is Isidore\u2019s main spiritual work, combining plained (particularly in the more technical chapters), and knowledge and personal experience into a practical why the latest manuscript versions (from Spain) have guide to Christian life. The Chronica is a history of additional material at the end of sections not attested in the world from the beginning to a.d. 615. The De fide earlier versions. Even though the task covered twenty catholica contra Judaeos is polemical. The De viris il- years, the amount of material is such that Isidore may lustribus contains brief summaries of the works (rather have had collaborators. If we can overcome the modern than the lives) of thirty-three churchmen, mostly African scholarly obsession with sources, we can see that the and Spanish, of the previous two centuries. The Historia didactic intention (looking to the future) often overrides Gothorum, Vandalorum et Sueborum (625\u2013626) begins the scientific (recording the ancient); to this extent the with the famous Laus Hispaniae and suggests that the Etymologiae was astonishingly successful, being read, Goths, rather than the Byzantines, are the genuine studied, and copied in European intellectual centers inheritors of Roman culture. The Quaestiones in vetus for another eight hundred years. Modern editions of all testamentum consists of commentaries. Isidore\u2019s texts, however, unhelpfully overclassicize the language of the early manuscripts. Various minor works also survive, plus the con- ciliar and liturgical texts Isidore helped draft, monastic Further Reading rules, and brief letters (mostly to Braulio); others are forgeries or apocryphally attributed; but his fame came D\u00edaz y D\u00edaz, M. C. \u201cIntroducci\u00f3n.\u201d In San Isidoro de Sevilla. to rest on his main work, still unfinished at his death, Etimolog\u00edas (edici\u00f3n biling\u00fce). Ed. J. Oroz Reta. Madrid, which subsumed much previous study and developed 1982. 1\u2013257. from his increasing appreciation of pagan learning: the Etymologiae. \u2014\u2014, ed. Isidoriana. Le\u00f3n, 1961. Fontaine, J. Isidore de S\u00e9ville et la culture classique dans l\u2019Espagne wisigothique. 2d ed. 3 vols. Paris, 1983. Roger Wright 351","","J JACOB VAN MAERLANT script with glosses. But the poet used a broad range of additional sources, including the Historia Scholastica (ca. 1230\u2013ca. 1290) (Scholastic History) of Petrus Comestor, Lucanus\u2019s De Bello Civile (Civil War), Ovid\u2019s Metamorphoses, Virgil\u2019s A Flemish poet, Maerlant came from Bruxambacht, or, Aeneid, the Disciplina Clericalis (Clerical Discipline) the \u201cFreedom of Bruges\u201d (het Brugse Vrije). His oeuvre, of Pedro Alfonso, the Secreta Secretorum (Secret of which shows strong didactic tendencies, clearly indi- Secrets), and Honorius of Autun\u2019s Imago Mundi (Image cates that he was well educated, even though his exact of the World). place in society is unclear. He probably received minor orders and held several positions as a clerk (clerc). In the For Albrecht of Voorne, Maerlant wrote Merlijn in late 1350s, Maerlant moved northward to the island of 1261. The text encompasses two separate tales: the Voorne (in the estuary of the River Maas in the southern Historic van den Grale (History of the Grail, 1607 part of the county of Holland), taking his name from verses) and Boek van Merline (Book of Merlin, 8485 the village Maerlant (near Brielle) on that island. He verses), which were adaptations of Robert de Boron\u2019s became sexton (coster, custos) of the local church of St. Joseph d\u2019Arimathie (Joseph of Arimathia) and Roman Peter (if Coster is not his family name), a profession that de Merlin (Tale of Merlin). The Torec (ca. 1262) is agreed perfectly with his activities as an author. During Maerlant\u2019s second Arthurian romance. This text (about his stay in Maerlant he was possibly a tutor to young 3,800 verses) has only been handed down to us in an Floris V (d. 1296), count of Holland. Around 1270 he abridged form, included in the vast Lancelot Compila- returned to Flanders, to Damme, near Bruges, earning tion of The Hague. his livelihood as a civil servant (in toll regulations) and continuing his writing. Tradition (unproved) has it that Maerlant\u2019s Historie van Troyen (ca. 1264, 40,880 he was buried after his death ca. 1290 \u201cunder the bells\u201d verses) renders the history of the Trojan War, from its of the church of Our Lady in Damme. preparatory stages to its aftermath. Among the sources he used were the Roman de Troie of Beno\u00eet of St. Maure, Some of Maerlant\u2019s works are only known from the Achilleid of Statius, the Aeneid of Virgil, Ovid\u2019s references in his other works, such as the Sompniarijs Metamorphoses and his own Alexanders Geesten. In (a book on dream interpretation), the Lapidarijs (a book addition, he incorporated the complete Trojeroman of on the mineral qualities of stones), and a vita (life) of St. Segher Diengotgaf into his text. The patron behind this Clare of Assisi. Maerlant\u2019s authorship of some works is work is not yet known, but it is likely the Historie van still a matter of dispute, but his oeuvre amounted to at Troyen was intended for a noble audience. least 225,000 lines in coupled rhyme. The \u201cMirror of Princes,\u201d the Heimelijkheid der The oldest surviving work is Alexanders Geesten Heimelijkheden (ca. 1266, 2,158 verses), was possibly [Deeds of Alexander (ca. 1260, 14,277 verses)]. Mae- written for the young count of Holland, Floris V, and is rlant wrote this history of Alexander the Great on a a translation of the Secreta Secretorum of Pseudo-Aris- commission from Aleide van Avesnes, to whom he gives toteles. (Maerlant\u2019s authorship of this text is sometimes the pseudonym Gheile in an acrostichon (series of first disputed.) Der naturen bloeme [Flower of Nature (ca. letters in lines of a poem which spell words). The text 1266, 16,670 verses)], the first bestiary in the vernacu- is a translation and adaptation of the Alexandre\u00efs of lar, assimilated Aristotle\u2019s books on biology. Maerlant Walter of Ch\u00e2tillon, which Maerlant took from a manu- 353","JACOB VAN MAERLANT See also Beno\u00eet de Sainte-Maure; Pedro Alfonso, or Petrus Alfonsi; Peter Comester derived his text from his immediate source, the Liber de Natura Rerum (Book of Natural Things) by Thomas Further Readng of Cantimpr\u00e9. The bestiary was commissioned by the nobleman Nicolaas of Cats (d. 1283). Berendrecht, Petra. Proeven van bekwaamheid. Jacob van Mae- rlant en de omgang met zijn Latijnse bronnen. Amsterdam: In 1271 Maerlant finished his Scolastica, an abridged Prometheus, 1996. adaptation of Petrus Comestor\u2019s Historia Scolastica. To this book, of some 27,000 verses, he added an Claassens, Geert H. M. \u201cMaerlant on Muhammad and Islam.\u201d In adaptation of Flavius Josephus\u2019 De Bello Iuda\u00efco (On Medieval Christian Perceptions of Islam. A Book of Essays, the Jewish War). Maerlant considered the total text of ed. John V. Tolan. New York & London: Garland, 1996, pp. almost 35,000 verses as a single work. Probably com- 211\u2013242 and 361\u2013393. missioned by a noble patron, it was intended to serve an audience of noble laymen (illiterati). Even though it de Pauw, Napoleon, and Edward Gaillard, ed. Die Istory van was not a translation of the Bible, the Scolastica marked Troyen. 4 vols. Ghent: Siffer, 1889\u20131892. the beginning of the popularization of the Bible in the Dutch language. de Vries, Matthijs, and Eelco Verwijs, ed. Jacob van Maerlant\u2019s Spiegel Historiael, met de fragmenten der later toegevoegde In the early seventies Maerlant wrote Sente Francis- gedeelten, bewerkt door Philip Utenbroeke and Lodewijc van cus Leven (10,545 verses). This fairly literal translation Velthem. 3 vols. Leyden: Brill, 1863\u20131879. of the Legenda Maior of St. Bonaventure is perhaps the first vita of Saint Francis in the vernacular. Maerlant Franck, Johannes, ed. Alexanders Geesten, van Jacob van Mae- wrote it at the request of the fratres minores (Order rlant, Groningen: Wolters, 1882. of the Lesser Brothers) in Utrecht. During his career as a poet, Maerlant composed several shorter stanzaic Franck, Johannes, and Jakob Verdam, ed. Jacob van Maerlants poems. These lyrical texts with a didactic aim show a Strophische Gedichten. Leyden: Sijthoff, 1898. fervent devotion to the Virgin Mary and a strong critical attitude towards society. Gysseling, Maurits, ed. Corpus van Middelnederlandse teksten. Reeks II: Literaire handschriften, Vol. 3, Rijmbijbel\/tekst, Maerlant\u2019s magnum opus is undoubtedly his Spiegel Leyden: Nijhoff, 1983. Historiael. He worked from 1283 until 1288 on this world chronicle, dedicated to Count Floris V of Holland. Maximilianus, O. F. M., ed. Sinte Franciscus Leven van Jacob The major source by this text is Vincent of Beauvais\u2019s van Maerlant. 2 vols. Zwolle: Tjeenk-Willink, 1954. Speculum Historiale but Maerlant consulted and ab- sorbed many more sources, among them the Vulgate, Sodmann, Timothy, ed. Jacob van Maerlant, Historie van den the Secreta Secretorum, De Hormesta Mundi of Orosius, Grale und Boek van Merline. Cologne\/Vienna: B\u00f6hlau, De Origine et Rebus Gestis Getarum of Jordanes, two 1980. works by Martin of Braga (the Liber de Moribus and the Formulae vitae honestae), Paulus Diaconus\u2019s Historia te Winkel, Jan. Maerlant\u2019s werken beschouwd als spiegel van de Miscella, the Historia Regum Brittanniae by Geoffrey 13de eeuw. Ghent 1892; rpt. Utrecht: HES, 1979. of Monmouth, as well as the Crusade chronicles by Albert of Aken and (probably) William of Tyre. As it van Oostrom, Frits P. Maerlants werteld. Amsterdam: Pro- has come down to us, the Spiegel Historiael (ca. 91,000 metheus, 1996. verses), is not solely from the hand of Maerlant. He had planned a work in four parts (which he called partie\u00ebn), Verdenius, Andries A., ed. Jacob van Maerlant\u2019s Heimelijkheid and he wrote the first, the third, and three \u201cbooks\u201d of der Heimelijkheden. Amsterdam: Kruyt, 1917. the fourth part. He had postponed work on the second part, containing the years 54\u2013367 c.e., and never was Verwijs, Eelco, ed. Jacob van Maerlant\u2019s Naturen Bloem. 2 vols. able to complete it. Apart from the lacuna of the second Groningen: Wolters, 1872\u20131878. part and the remaining \u201cbooks\u201d of part four, Maerlant wrote a history from the Creation to the year 1113. The Geert H. M. Claassens Spiegel Historiael was completed by two of his younger contemporaries, Philip Utenbroeke and Lodewijc van JACOBUS DA VORAGINE Velthem. The latter added a fifth part, bringing the his- (c. 1228-1298) tory to the year 1316. Jacobus da Voragine (Jacopo da Varazze) was a Domini- The extent and diversity of his oeuvre, and his ex- can writer, administrator, and archbishop; his name sug- ceptionally erudite and critical style, marks Jacob van gests that he or his forbears came from Varazze, a town Maerlant as a leading author of his time whose stature near Genoa. He entered the Order of Preachers\u2014i.e., the extended beyond his Dutch homeland. Dominican order\u2014as a youth, in 1244. After complet- ing his education, he is reputed to have distinguished himself both as a public preacher and as a teacher of preachers in training, and also to have been prior (local head) of the Dominican community in Genoa. From 1267 on, his career is more clearly documented. His fellow Dominicans repeatedly elected him prior of the entire province of Lombardy, a post he held from 1267 to 1277 and again from 1281 to 1286. Both the order and the papacy entrusted him with sensitive diplomatic missions. From 1292 until his death, he was archbishop of Genoa, and he had such an exemplary reputation in this office that he was eventually beatified (in 1816). 354","Among the literary works Joacobus wrote or JACOPO DA MILANO compiled, the earliest and most famous is a Legenda sanctorum aurea (Golden Legend). After the Legenda, Bernard of Clairvaux (among others), but this idea has Jacobus composed four large sets of Latin sermons, not found widespread acceptance. which evidently circulated as models for other preach- ers to use: Sermones de sanctis, on major saints and Recent investigation has revealed Stimulus amoris in festivals of the church year; Sermones de tempore, on its Jacopean form to be an unstable \u201copen text\u201d whose the Sunday gospels for the year; Sermones quadragesi- very title is uncertain. As now edited, it consists of a males, on the weekday gospels for Lent; and Mariade, prologue and twenty-three brief chapters; the first nine or Laudes deiparae virginis, sermons in praise of the chapters guide the reader toward divine rapture, and Virgin Mary. Jacobus\u2019s sermons survive in numerous the rest deal with other aspects of the contemplative manuscripts and early printed editions and thus must life. The writing style is often intense and rhetorically have enjoyed a wide and long-lasting popularity. His effective; it combines direct address, exclamation, and last major work, Chronicle of Genoa, which he wrote figures of repetition with an intentionally simple vo- as archbishop, is noteworthy for the local history and cabulary. Chapter 14, an especially vivid meditation on hagiography it preserves and for some autobiographical Christ\u2019s passion, is thought by some to have furnished passages that shed light on his own life. the theological basis for the imagery in the window of the Glorification of Saint Francis in the upper church of Further Reading Francis\u2019s basilica at Assisi. However, the ideas in ques- tion were common in later thirteenth-century Franciscan Kaeppeli, Thomas. Scriptores Ordini Praedicatorum medii aevi, contexts, and the dating of both the window and the Vol. 2. Rome: Ad S. Sabinae, 1975, pp. 348-369. earliest version or versions of the text is uncertain. Monleone, Giovanni. Iacopo da Varagine e la sua Cronaca di Jacopo\u2019s Stimulus circulated with Bonaventure\u2019s Genova dale origini al MCCXCVII, 3 vols. Rome: Tipografia works, was soon mistakenly attributed to Bonaventure, del Senato, 1941. and was expanded twice in the fourteenth century by persons unknown. Modern scholars differentiate these Sermones aurei . . ., 2 vols. Ed. Rudolph Clutius. Augsburg and texts by calling the original Stimulus (amoris) minor Cracow: Apud Christophorum Bartl, 1760. (Latin edition: and the expansions (treated as a single version) Stimulus includes all four sermons). (amoris) maior. The maior was more widely read: there are more than 130 manuscripts of it, as opposed to some Sherry Reames ninety manuscripts of the minor. A recent suggestion that the maior was actually the original seems unpersuasive. JACOPO DA MILANO Starting in the later fourteenth century, this very differ- (13th century) ent larger version was translated into other European languages, including English. A fourteenth-century The Franciscan lector Jacopo da Milano (Jacob of Milan, translation (now lost) of Stimulus minor into Tuscan James of Milan, Jacobus Mediolanensis, Giacomo da dialect is thought to underlie its first printing in Italian Milano) was the author of the original version of a spiri- (Venice, 1521). tual classic in Latin, Stimulus amoris (Prick of Love). Much has been surmised but little is known for certain See also Angela da Foligno, Saint; about Jacopo. From the date of the earliest evidence for Bonaventure, Saint the Stimulus amoris, and from the acquaintance it shows with the writings of Saint Bonaventure, Jacopo must Further Reading have composed it in the second half of the thirteenth century. Jacopo has been plausibly but not conclusively Edition identified with a Brother James of Milan recorded as a lector at the Franciscan convent at Domodossola in Fathers of the College of Saint Bonaventure, eds. Stimulus amo- 1305. Some scholars have thought him identical or pos- ris fr. Iacobi Mediolanensis\u2014Canticum pauperis fr. Ioannis sibly identical with a mid-thirteenth-century Milanese Peckam. Bibliotheca Franciscans Ascetica Medii Aevi, 4. theologian who was known until 1979\u2014incorrectly\u2014as Quaracchi: Collegium S. Bonaventurae, 1905, pp. vi\u2013xvii, Giacomo Capelli or de Capellis; but this person is no 1\u2013132. (Reprint, 1949). longer credibly a Jacopo. Jacopo could well have been the renowned Franciscan, formerly a lector in Milan, Critical Studies who sometime after 1296 read and approved Arnaldo of Foligno\u2019s Memorial on the mystic and visionary Angela Alberzoni, Maria Pia.\u2019 \u201cL\u2018approbatio\u2019: Curia Romana, ordine of Foligno. One modern scholar has ascribed to Jacopo minoritico e Liber.\u201d In Ang\u00e8le de Foligno: Le dossier, ed. a meditation on the hymn Salve Regina, transmitted Giulia Barone and Jacques Dalarun. Collection de l\u2019\u00c9cole in some of his manuscripts and at times attributed to Fran\u00e7aise de Rome, 255. Rome: \u00c9cole Fran\u00e7aise de Rome, 1999, pp. 293\u2013318. (See especially pp. 311\u2013114.) Canal, Jose M., \u201cEl Stimulus amoris de Santiago de Mil\u00e1n y la Meditatio in Salve regina.\u201d Franciscan Studies, 26, 1966, pp. 174\u2013188. Cremaschi, Chiara Giovanna, trans. \u201cIntroduzione\u201d and Stimulus 355","JACOPO DA MILANO The second section is divided into five chapters de- scribing, respectively, the five different chess pieces in (Giacomo da Milano, Il pungolo dell\u2019amore). In I mistici: the first row: (1) king, (2) queen, (3) alphinus (judge), (4) Scritti dei mistici francescani. Assisi: Editrici Francescane, knight, and (5) rook (legate). Each piece is described in 1995\u2013 , Vol. 1, pp. 795\u2013881. terms of its clothing, its symbols of power, the moral sig- Eisermann, Falk. \u201cDiversae et plurimae materiae in diversis nificance of those symbols, and\u2014most important\u2014the capitulis: Der \u2018Stimulus amoris\u2019 als literarisches Dokument way a represented by the piece must behave in society. der normativen Zentrierung.\u201d Fr\u00fchmittelalterliche Studien, Jacopo narrates several exempla to illustrate the kind of 31, 1997, pp. 214\u2013232. behavior he has in mind for each person. \u2014\u2014. Stimulus amoris: Inhalt, lateinische \u00dcberlieferung, deutsche \u00dcbersetzungen, Rezeption. M\u00fcnchener Texte und The third section deals with the pawns and is divided Untersuchungen zur Deutschen Literatur des Mittelalters, into eight chapters, each taking up a particular group 118. T\u00fcbingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 2001. of commoners (one pawn representing one group): (1) Mostaccio, S. \u201cGiacomo da Milano.\u201d In Dizionario biografico laborers (farmers), (2) smiths, (3) notaries, (4) mer- degli Italiani, Vol. 54. Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia chants, (5) physicians, (6) innkeepers, (7) city watchmen Italiana, 2000, pp. 221\u2013223. and guards, and (8) ribalds and town couriers. Each Piana, Celestino. \u201cIl \u2018fr. Iacobus de Mediolano lector\u2019 autore dello pawn is described in terms of the tools of its trade, its pseudo-Bonaventuriano Stimulus amoris ed un convento del relationship to the chess piece behind it, and how the suo insegnamento.\u201d Antonianum, 61, 1986, pp. 329\u2013339. person represented should behave. For each group of Poulenc, Jer\u00f4me. \u201cSaint Fran\u00e7ois dans le \u2018vitrail des anges\u2019 de commoners, Jacopo narrates one or more exempla, il- l\u2019\u00e9glise sup\u00e9rieure de la basilique d\u2019Assise.\u201d Archivum Fran- lustrating either appropriate or inappropriate behavior ciscanum Historicum, 76, 1983, pp. 701\u2013713. of that group. Wessley, Stephen E., \u201cJames of Milan and the Guglielmites: Franciscan Spirituality and Popular Heresy in Late Thir- The fourth section is also divided into eight chapters. teenth-Century Milan.\u201d Collectanea Franciscana, 54, 1984, The first chapter describes the chessboard as an alle- pp. 5\u201320. gorical representation of Babylon, where the game was presumably invented. The next six chapters deal with John B. Dillon the actual moves of each chess piece on the chessboard. These moves reflect the rules of chess that were then JACOPO DE CESSOLIS in effect in Lombardy and are allegorized to illustrate (f1. 1275\u20131322) a moral. For example, when a pawn becomes a queen, the fact that many great rulers had humble origins is il- Jacopo Jacobus was born in the small town of Cessole, lustrated. In the eighth chapter in this section\u2014the final near Asti, in Piedmont. He entered the Dominican or- chapter\u2014Jacopo reiterates the history of the origins of der, probably at the convent of Santa Maddalena near chess, reminding his readers that chess is a social alle- Asti. From 1317 to 1322, he lived in Genoa, where he gory of the various classes of medieval society working became vicar of the Inquisition attached to the convent together for the common good. of San Domenico. At the request of fellow Dominicans and several laypeople, he wrote his only extant work, As Kaeppeli (1960) noted, the convent of San Do- De moribus hominum ed de officiis nobilum super ludo menico in Genoa produced a considerable amount of scaccorum (On the Customs of Men and Their Noble popular religious literature. It is not surprising, there- Actions with Regard to the Game of Chess), known fore, that Ludus scaccorum spread rapidly throughout simply as Ludus scaccorum. western and eastern Europe; there were even a Scottish translation and a Czech translation. When Ludus scac- Ludus scaccorum is a moralized explanation of chess corum was translated from Latin into a vernacular, or based on the medieval estates, whereby each chess piece from one vernacular into another, the content was some- represents a different social class. It consists of twenty- times modified to reflect a country\u2019s particular ways of four chapters divided into four sections (tractatus). The representing its own social classes (Buuren 1997). first section consists of three chapters that narrate when, how, and by whom chess was invented. The narrative, The diffusion and popularity of Ludus scaccorum in the form of a medieval exemplum, recounts how a during the fourteenth and fifteenrh centuries are reflected Greek philosopher named Xerxes or Perses invented in the numerous manuscripts and early printed editions the game to show his cruel king Evilmerodach \u201cthe of the work. It was the second book to be printed in the maners and conditicions of a kynge of the nobles and English language: William Caxton printed an English of the comun people and of theyr offices and how they translation of Jehan de Vignay\u2019s French translation shold be touchid and drawen. And how he shold amende (c. 1350) of Ludus scaccorum in 1474. Despite the hymself & become vertuous.\u201d Xerxes explains that he popularity of Ludus scaccorum in the late Middle invented the game to keep the king from \u201cydlenesse,\u201d Ages and the early Renaissance, there are no critical which can induce men to sin, and to satisfy man\u2019s desire editions in print of the Latin original, nor are there any for \u201cnoueltees & tydynges,\u201d which in turn sharpen the mind. The exemplum ends with Evilmerodach\u2019s eventual conversion, thus setting a precedent for using chess to teach people how to behave. 356"]