Key Figures in Medieval Europe - An Encyclopedia

["LEVI BEN GERSHOM (GERSONIDES) LIMBOURG BROTHERS Further Reading (1288\u20131344) Levi ben Gershom. The Wars of the Lord. 2 vols. Trans. Seymour Although he was born and lived his entire life in then Feldman. Phildelphia, 1984\u201387. Touati, C. La Pens\u00e9e phi- French Provence, Gersonides was the heir of the Spanish losophique et th\u00e9ologique de Gersonide. Paris, 1974. Hebrew-Arabic medieval culture. Deeply influenced by Averro\u00ebs and Maimonides in philosophy and by Abra- Seymour Feldman ham ibn Ezra in biblical exegesis, Gersonides not only excelled in both these areas but also made important LIMBOURG BROTHERS contributions to astronomy and mathematics. Besides (fl. late 14th\u2013early 15th c.) inventing or improving upon several astronomical obser- vational instruments, he compiled his own astronomical Three brothers (Paul, Jean, and Herman), nephews of tables, made many of his own observations, and engaged the painter Jean Malouel, came to Paris from Nijmegen in a critical analysis of several of Ptolemy\u2019s hypotheses. in the Low Countries as youths to serve as apprentices In mathematics he wrote a commentary on parts of under a goldsmith but had to leave because of the plague. Euclid\u2019s Elements and a treatise on trigonometry. Imprisoned on their way home in 1399, they were ran- somed by Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, for whom But it was in philosophy and biblical exegesis that they illuminated a Bible, now lost, between 1400 and Gersonides was most influential. Continuing the tradi- 1404. They may have been in the service of John, duke tion of the C\u00f3rdoban philosopher Averro\u00ebs, Gersonides of Berry, by 1405; for him, they produced their most wrote many supercommentaries on Averro\u00ebs\u2019s com- notable works: miniatures in the Tr\u00e8s Belles Heures de mentaries on Aristotle, in which he exhibited a critical and independent approach to both his predecessors. Limbourg Brothers. January: The Feast of the Duke of Berry. But it is The Wars of the Lord that is his most important Illustrated manuscript page from Les Tr\u00e8s Riches Heures de philosophical work. In this long treatise most of the top- Duc de Berry, 1416. Ms. 65; fol. 1V. Photo: R.G. Ojeda. ics of medieval philosophy and science are discussed \u00a9 R\u00e9union des Mus\u00e9es Nationaux\/Art Resource, New York. in detail and with acuity. Some of his more novel or radical conclusions were (1) the individual human intellect is immortal (contrary to Averro\u00ebs); (2) God does not have knowledge of particular future contingent events (contrary to Maimonides); (3) yet there is divine providence over deserving individuals; (4) the universe was divinely created out of an eternal shapeless body (contrary to Averro\u00ebs and Maimonides); (5) although it has a beginning, the universe is indestructible (contrary to Aristotle). Whereas The Wars of the Lord elicited considerable criticism from his coreligionists, Gersonides\u2019 com- mentaries upon the Bible were widely studied, even among nonphilosophical Jews; his Commentary on Job was particularly popular. This is remarkable because in these commentaries Gersonides pulls no punches: the ideas of The Wars of the Lord are repeated or assumed, and there is no effort to mute their impact. He did not obey Averro\u00ebs\u2019s and Maimonides\u2019 rule that the teaching of philosophy ought to be reserved for the philosophers alone. In his Commentary on Job, for example, he has each character represent a distinct philosophical posi- tion on the question of divine providence. These various positions are philosophically analyzed, and eventually one emerges as the true solution to Job\u2019s predicament. Thus, the Book of Job is transformed into a Platonic dialogue. See also Averro\u00ebs, Abu \u2018L-Wal\u00af\u0131d Muhammad B. Ahmad B. Rushd; Gregory of Tours; Isidore of Seville, Saint 407","LIMBOURG BROTHERS arrange a marriage with a Byzantine princess for Otto\u2019s son, Otto II. The second embassy was a miserable fail- Notre Dame (B.N. n.a. lat. 3093), a miniature of the duke ure, but later Nicephorus\u2019s successor, John I Tzimisces, of Berry embarking on a journey in the Petites Heures did consent to a match between Otto II and Theophano. (B.N. lat. 18014), some scenes in grisaille for a Bible Liudprand probably went to Constantinople a fourth historiale (B.N. fr. 166), the illuminations of the Belles time in 972 (though he seems to have been reluctant Heures (New York, The Cloisters), and, most notably, to do so, possibly because of ill health) to help escort miniatures in the Tr\u00e8s Riches Heures (Chantilly, Mus\u00e9e Theophano to the west; and apparently he died at some Cond\u00e9), which remained unfinished in 1416, when all point during that trip. three brothers and their patron appear to have died in an epidemic. Liudprand\u2019s principal works are Antapodosis (trans- lated into English as Tit for Tat or The Book of Retribu- Their miniatures, particularly in the Tr\u00e8s Riches Heu- tion); Relatio de legatio Constantinopolitana (Report res, are representative of the height of the International on the Embassy to Constantinople), i.e., the embassy Gothic style in France, combining courtly elegance, of 968\u2013969; and Liber de rebus gestibus Ottonis (The sumptuous coloration, and a mixture of fanciful and Deeds of Otto), i.e., Otto I. Recent scholarship (Bischoff remarkably naturalistic landscape settings. Although 1984) has also identified Liudprand as author of a ser- attempts have been made to define the style of each of mon given at Easter c. 960. the brothers, these have not always been successful, and they are generally regarded to have participated Antapodosis is a gossipy history running from 887 collectively on their productions. to 949. It forms our principal guide to northern and central Italy during that confused period and contains See also John, Duke of Berry; Philip the Bold much information on other areas: Germany, Burgundy, southern Italy, and the Byzantine empire\u2014especially Further Reading Constantinople. Antapodosis was written to show that the major figures in Italian politics of the first half of Longnon, Jean, and Raymond Cazelles. The Tr\u00e8s Riches Heures the tenth century whom Liudprand disliked\u2014notably of Jean, Duke of Berry. New York: Braziller, 1969. Berengar of Ivrea and his wife, Willa\u2014eventually met bad ends. Though an excellent storyteller, Liudprand Meiss, Millard. French Painting in the Time of Jean de Berry: obviously does not pretend to be impartial. The Limbourgs and Their Contemporaries. 2 vols. NewYork: Braziller, 1974. Relatio is bitterly anti-Byzantine. It is often cited to show the growing estrangement of the Latin west \u2014\u2014, and Elizabeth H. Beatson. The Belles Heures of Jean, Duke from Byzantium but in fact demonstrates no such thing. of Berry. New York: Braziller, 1974. Liudprand\u2019s tirades against the \u201cGreeks\u201d are a result of the hostile and demeaning treatment he received at Robert G. Calkins the hands of Emperor Nicephorus. There is no trace of anti-Greek sentiment in Antapodosis, which gives a LIUDPRAND OF CREMONA good-natured account of Liudprand\u2019s mission of 949. (c. 920\u2013972) The fascinating narrative and Liudprand\u2019s caustic humor compensate for the whining tone of Relatio. Liudprand (Liutprand, Liuzo) was bishop of Cremona (961\u2013972) and also a historian and diplomat. He was The Deeds of Otto is a record not of the great Saxon born in Pavia in northern Italy into a wealthy family who ruler\u2019s entire reign (Liudprand died a year before Otto), may have been either merchants or urban aristocrats. His but of one incident: the deposition of Pope John XII by father (who died young) and stepfather had served Hugh Otto in 963. of Aries, king of Italy, as diplomats. Liudprand himself went to Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine (eastern Despite his admiration for and devotion to Otto and Roman) empire, in 949 during the reign of Constantine the Saxons, Liudprand is a figure essentially centered VII (called Porphorygenitus) on a mission for Hugh\u2019s on the Mediterranean. He claimed to know Greek successor, Berengar of Ivrea. Liudprand fell out with and interlarded his work with Greek words (followed Berengar and went into exile at the court of Otto I, duke by their Latin translations). Although some scholars of Saxony. There, Liudprand met Recemund, bishop of consider this merely a display of pedantry, most now Elvira in Muslim Spain, who suggested that Liudprand believe that Liudprand did know the spoken Byzantine write a history of their time. The result was Antapodo- tongue of his day (which was closer to modern than to sis. Liudprand rose in Otto\u2019s favor, was granted the see classical Greek), and perhaps some classical or koin\u00e9 of Cremona, and accompanied Otto on an expedition Greek as well. Although Liudprand had the requisite to Italy that resulted in Otto\u2019s coronation as emperor education and social background for a diplomat, his ef- in February 962. Liudprand went on at least two mis- fectiveness was vitiated by his explosive temper (amply sions to Constantinople on behalf of Otto: in 960 (when demonstrated in Legatio) and his acerbic disposition (of he seems not to have reached Constantinople); and in 968\u2013969, during the reign of Nicephorus II Phocas, to 408","which Antapodosis is a prime example). His urbane, LLULL, RAM\u00d3N witty, sarcastic, and occasionally ribald style makes him sound curiously modern, especially if one reads him in Previt\u00e9-Orton, Charles. \u201cItaly in the Tenth Century.\u201d In The a good translation. Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. 3, Germany and the Western Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, See also Otto I; Otto II 1922, ch. 7. Further Reading Rentschler, Michael. Liudprand von Cremona: Eine Studie zum \u00f6st-westlichen Kulturgef\u00e4lle im Mittelalter. Frankfurter Wis- Editions senschaftliche Beitr\u00e4ge, 14. Frankfurt: Vittorio Klosrermann, 1981. Bischoff, Bernard. \u201cEiner Osterpredigt Liudprands von Cremona (um 960).\u201d In Anecdota novissima: Texte des vierten bis Sutherland, J. N. \u201cThe Idea of Revenge in Lombard Society in sechzehnten Jahrhunderts\u2014Quellen und Untersuchungen the Eighth and Tenth Centuries: The Cases of Paul the Deacon zur lateinischen Philologie des Mittelalters, Vol. 7. Stuttgart, and Liudprand of Cremona.\u201d Speculum, 50, 1975, pp. 391\u2013410 1984, pp. 93\u2013100. (First publication of the text of an Easter (Revenge is a major theme in Antapodosis.) sermon by Liudprand, previously anonymous, c. 960.) Martin Arbagi Liudprand of Cremona. Opera omnia Liudprandi Cremonensis, ed. Paolo Chiesa. Corpus Christianorum. Continuatio Medi- LLULL, RAM\u00d3N (1232\/3\u20131316) aevalis. Turnholti: Brepois, 1998. Catalan lay missionary, philosopher, mystic, poet, and Translatio Sanctae Hymeri, ed. Ferdinand Ughelli. Itala Sacra, novelist, Ram\u00f3n Llull was one of the creators of liter- 4. Rome: Vitale Mascardi, 1592, cols. 797\u2013798. (Includes ary Catalan; the first European to write philosophy and a notice of Liudprand\u2019s death. Reprinted in Monumenta theology in a vernacular tongue; the first to write prose Germaniae Historica, Scriptorum, 3. Hannover and Leipzig: novels on contemporary themes; and the founder of Hanische Buchhandlung, 1839, pp. 266\u2013267, note 23.) a combinatory \u201cart\u201d that was a distant forerunner of computer science. He wrote some 265 works in Catalan, Translations Latin, Arabic (none of these last have been preserved), and perhaps Proven\u00e7al. In addition we have medieval Relatio de Legatio Constantinopolitana, ed., trans., intro., and translations of his works into Spanish, French, and commentary by Brian Scott. Reading Medieval and Renais- Italian. sance Texts. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press, 1993. (With textual notes.) Life The Works of Liudprand of Cremona, trans. and intro. F. A. Born on the island of Mallorca (modern-day Majorca), Wright. Broadway Medieval Library. London: Routledge, which had only recently been reconquered (at the end of 1930. (Classic English translation. Includes Translatio Hy- 1229), and brought up in a wealthy family in a colonial meri but not the Easter Sermon. Wright substitutes French situation, amid a still considerable Muslim population for the Greek words in the original, creating much the same (perhaps a third of the entire population of the island), effect.) Llull\u2019s youth was that of a courtier who dabbled in troubadour verse. He married, had two children, and Critical Studies was appointed seneschal to the future Jaume II of Mal- lorca. Then, in 1263, repeated visions of the Crucifixion Halphen, Louis. \u201cThe Kingdom of Burgundy.\u201d In The Cambridge made him decide to dedicate his life to the service of Medieval History, Vol. 3, Germany and the Western Empire. Christ, and specifically to carrying out three aims: to try Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922, ch. 6. to convert Muslims even if it meant risking his life; to \u201cwrite a book, the best in the world, against the errors of Hiestand, Rudolf. Byzanz und das Regnum italicum im 10. unbelievers\u201d; and to found monasteries for the teaching Jahrhundert. Geist und Werke zu Zeit. Zurich: Fretz and of languages to missionaries. Llull bought a Muslim Wasmuth, 1964. slave in order to learn Arabic and began nine years of study not only of that language, but also of Latin, phi- Koder, Johannes, and Thomas Weber. Liutprand von Cremona losophy, theology, and logic, as well as a certain amount in Konstantinopel. Herausgegeben von der Kommission f\u00fcr of law, medicine (surely in Montpellier), and astronomy. F\u00fchchristliche und \u00d6stkirchliche Kunst der \u00d6sterreichischen At the end of this period he wrote a compendium of Akademie der Wissenschaften und vom Institut f\u00fcr Byzan- Al-Ghaza\u00afl\u00af\u0131\u2019s logic and the Llibre de contemplaci\u00f3 en tinistik und Neograzistik der Universit\u00e4t Wien, 13. Vienna: D\u00e9u (Book of Contemplation), a vast work combining Verlag der \u00d6sterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, semi-mystic effusions with the germs of most of his 1980. (Two brief monographs: one is on Liudprand\u2019s knowl- later thought. The changing methodological tactics of edge of Greek, with a glossary of all Greek words in his works; the work, however, were finally resolved on Mount the second essay uses Liudprand as a source for the diet of Randa in Mallorca, where, after a week\u2019s meditation, the period in Byzantium and the west.) \u201cThe Lord suddenly illuminated his mind, giving him Kreutz, Barbara. Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991. Leyser, Karl. \u201cEnds and Means in Liudprand of Cremona.\u201d In Byzantium and the West, c. 850\u2013c. 1200: Proceedings of the XVIII Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Oxford, 30th March\u20131st April 1984, ed. J. D. Howard-Johnston. Amster- dam: Adolf Hakkert, 1988, pp. 119\u2013143. (Survey in English of Liudprand\u2019s work that also summarizes scholarship.) Lintzel, M. Studien \u00fcber Liudprand von Cremona. Historische Studien, 3. 1933. (A standard monograph.) 409","LLULL, RAM\u00d3N diosa inveniendi veritatem, was rapidly accompanied by a series of satellite works explaining it and showing the the form and method for writing the aforementioned other fields to which it could be applied. Among these, book against the errors of the unbelievers.\u201d (See below the most important was Llibre del gentil e dels tres for Contemporary Life from which this and other pas- savis (Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men), sages are quoted.) This \u201cform and method\u201d was the art, Llull\u2019s principal apologetic work. It was also around of which he now wrote the first work (Ars compendiosa this same time that Llull wrote a pedagogical tract for inveniendi veritatem, c. 1274), thereby fulfilling the sec- his son, Doctrina pueril, and a manual of knighthood, ond of his three aims. The third was soon (1276) to be the Llibre de l\u2019orde de cavalleria (Book of the Order fulfilled with the founding of the monastery of Miramar of Chivalry), destined to become popular in its French on the northwest coast of Mallorca for the teaching of translation, and later translated into English by William Arabic to thirteen Franciscan missionaries. Caxton. It was also during this time (1283) that he wrote his first didactic novel, Blaquerna (this seems to have From this point on, apart from his feverish literary been the original form of the name, and not the later activity, Llull\u2019s life became one of ceaseless travel in an Blanquerna), which included his most famous mystic attempt to interest the world in his missionary projects. work, the Llibre d\u2019amic e amat (Book of the Lover and Using Montpellier as a base (it then formed part of the the Beloved). kingdom of Mallorca), he visited Paris four times, where he lectured at the university and had audiences with the In the same year of 1283, Llull decided to refashion king (Philippe IV the Fair, nephew of his patron, Jaume many minor aspects of his system in a new version called II of Mallorca); he traveled to Italy some six times (to Ars demonstrativa, around which he wrote a new cycle Genoa, where he was in contact with rich merchants, of explicative and satellite works. It was during this to Pisa, to Rome, where he had audiences with at least period that he wrote his second didactic novel, F\u00e9lix o three popes, to Naples, and near the end of his life to El libre de meravelles (Felix, or the Book of Wonders), Sicily); he went three times to North Africa (Tunis and which includes the political animal fable, Llibre de les Bougie [modern-day Beja\u00efa]), thereby fulfilling the first ba\u00e8sties (Book of the Beasts). of his three proseltyzing aims; and once to Cyprus (from where he visited the Turkish port of Ayas, and perhaps The Ternary Phase (1290\u20131308). In this phase the prin- Jerusalem). Llull\u2019s lack of success was typical for an ciples of the art appear in multiples of three (and the four idealist approaching practical politicians with schemes elements disappear as one of its foundations). Because for the betterment of mankind. As he himself admitted of \u201cthe weakness of human intellect\u201d that Llull encoun- in a work of the same title, he was everywhere treated tered on his first trip to Paris, he reduced the number as a phantasticus, or as he put it in earlier works, \u201cRa- of figures with which his system invariably began from mon lo Foll.\u201d And in a touching passage from the poem twelve (or sixteen) to four, and he removed all algebraic Desconhort (1295), he complained that people read his notation from the actual discourse of the art. This phase art \u201clike a cat passing rapidly over hot coals.\u201d But these begins not with a single work surrounded by satellites, epithets and complaints must not make us forget that he but with twin works: Ars inventiva ver\u00eftatis which, as did manage to have the ear of kings and popes, that he Llull says, treats ci\u00e8ncia or knowledge, and Ars amativa presented them with political tracts that recent research which treats am\u00e0ncia or love of God; it ends with the has shown to have been far more realistic than was final formulation of his system in Ars generalis ultima formerly believed. Nor must we forget that on his last (1305\u20131308), and in shorter form in Ars brevis (1308). trip to Paris, overcoming at last the incomprehensions This period is rich in important works, among which attendant on his former attempts to teach his peculiar one might mention the immense encyclopedia, Arbre system there, Llull received (1310\u20131311) letters of de ci\u00e8ncia (Tree of Science, 1295\u20131296), as well as his commendation from Philippe IV and the chancellor principal work on logic, epistemology, and politics, of the university, as well as a document in which forty Logica nova (1303), Liber de ascensu et descensu intel- masters and bachelors in arts and medicine approved lectus (1305), and Liber de fine (also 1305). of Llull\u2019s lectures in Ars brevis. The Council of Vienne (1311\u20131312) subsequently endorsed his proposal for the The Postart Phase (1308\u20131315). With the definitive founding of schools of Oriental languages. formulation of his system now out of the way, Llull is free to concentrate on specific logical and episte- After Llull\u2019s discovery of the methodology of the art, mological topics, many directed toward his campaign his literary and philosophical production can be divided against the Parisian \u201cAverr\u00f6ists\u201d while on his last trip into three periods. there (1309\u20131311). It was at the end of this stay that he dictated what has come to be known in its English The Quaternary Phase (ca. 1274\u20131289). This was so translation as Contemporary Life. He also became more called because the basic components of the art (divine attributes, relative principles, and elements) appear in multiples of four. The first work of the art, Ars compen- 410","and more involved in the art of preaching, writing a vast LLULL, RAM\u00d3N Summa sermonum in Mallorca (1312\u20131313). Middle Ages, although interest in him seems to have Llull\u2019s last works are dated from Tunis, December been of a dispersed, sporadic nature, at least until the 1315, after which he disappears from history. He prob- beginning of the sixteenth century. Then we find a ably died early the following year, either there on the Lullist school at Valencia (where some of his works ship returning to his native Mallorca, or on the island were published), the chief figure of which was the itself, where he is buried. The story of his martyrdom humanist Alonso de Proaza. He in turn was in contact (he was stoned to death) is a legend bolstered by pious with Cardinal Francisco Jim\u00e9nez de Cisneros, who in falsifications in the early seventeenth century, in which his foundation in 1508 of the University of Alcal\u00e1 de an earlier (1307) stoning in Beja\u00ef\u2019a was transposed and Henares, instituted a chair of Lullian philosophy and made into the cause of his death. theology. Later in the century, Felipe II was an admirer of Llull, as was his chief architect, Juan de Herrera, who Thought and Influence not only wrote a Tratado del cuerpo c\u00fabico based on Llull\u2019s art, but in 1582 founded a mathematical-philo- The unusual nature of Llull\u2019s system and of his thought sophical academy in Madrid in whose program the art in general is due to his insistence that any apologetic was to have a prominent place. system that hoped to persuade Muslims and Jews would have to abandon the use of Scripture, which only caused Literary Works endless discussions over validity and interpretation, and try to prove the articles of the Christian faith, above all Llull\u2019s most unusual literary feature is that he dared to those of the Trinity and Incarnation that Muslims and modify the conventional genres of contemporary ro- Jews found most difficult to accept. The first consider- mance tradition to fit his own didactic needs. Llull first ation forced Llull to forge an abstract system that could attempted the novel, in the Libre de Evast e Blaquerna stand completely by itself. This was the art, each work (Book of Evast and Blaquerna, 1283), and F\u00e9lix o El of which begins with a series of concepts distributed libre de meravelles (Felix, or the Book of Wonders, amid geometric figures, and then proceeds to describe 1288) he recounted stories morally useful to his read- the correct method of combining these concepts. The ers. He similarly adjusted the narrative wrapping of an point was to display the basic structure of reality, which, early apologetical work, the Llibre del gentil e dels tres noted Llull, begins with the attributes of God, good- savis (Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men), ness, greatness, eternity, and so forth, which are not in which an unbeliever struggles to find the truth and static but unfold into three correlatives of action. Thus finally embraces the faith. bonitas (goodness) unfolds into an agent (bonificati- vum) and a patient (bonificabile), and the act joining The plot of Blaquerna follows the outline of a them (bonificare). Their necessary activity ad intra hero\u2019s biography; the main character is endowed with produces the Trinity, and their: contingent activity ad the mental strength permitting him to overcome the extra the act of creation. Moreover, this triad of action obstacles in the way of his becoming a contemplative is then reproduced at every level of creation, so that, for hermit. These \u201cobstacles\u201d are the ties that link a man instance, man\u2019s intellect is composed of intellectivum, to society: a family, a religious order, a diocese, and intelligibile, and intelligere, and fire of ignificativum, the whole of Christianity ruled by the pope. Blaquerna ignificabile, and ignificare. abandons his parents, Evast and Aloma, and convinces his bride, Natana, to become an exemplary nun, where- This metaphysics of action exerted a strong influ- upon he enters a monastery and becomes a reforming ence on Nicholas of Cusa, as did the combinatorial art abbot who is then elected bishop. Blaquerna improves on Giordano Bruno and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. the spiritual life of his diocese and as a result is elected But at the same time, Llull\u2019s system was taken over by pope; from Rome Blaquerna manages to reorganize alchemists, and eventually over one hundred such works the world and to change the moral attitudes of people. were falsely attributed to him. This, plus his self-image Finally he renounces the papacy and becomes the per- as a phantasticus, the unusual nature of his system, and fect hermit, which permits him to write Llibre d\u2019amic e the fact that his attempts to prove the articles of the faith amat (Book of the Lover and the Beloved), a collection made him suspect to the Inquisition, helped propagate of short mystical proverbs lyrically embellished and the image of a peculiar, countercultural figure. artistically constructed. Llull\u2019s influence in the Iberian Peninsula was less The Book of Wonders follows the spiritual journey of hetorodox and countercultural than in the rest of Eu- Felix through events that cause him \u201cwonder\u201d because rope. Aside from the fifteenth-century Llullist schools they seem to be contrary to God\u2019s will, and that allow of Mallorca and Barcelona, there were a certain number various hermits and philosophers to explain the funda- of Castilian translations of his works done in the later mental points of Christian knowledge about God, angels, the heavens, the elements, plants, minerals, animals, 411","LLULL, RAM\u00d3N Llull, R. Obres essencials. 2 vols. Barcelona, 1957\u201360. \u2014\u2014. Selected Works of Ramon Llull (1232\u20131316). 2 vols. Ed. A. man, paradise, and hell. Like Blaquerna, this novel of- fers plenty of morally meaningful exempla, but unlike Bonner. Princeton, N.J., 1985. Catalan version in Obres se- the earlier work, it betrays considerable pessimism about lectes de Ramon Llull (1232\u20131316). 2 vols. Majorca, 1989. the capacity of mankind to better its moral behavior. One chapter of F\u00e9lix has become particularly famous: Llibre Anthony Bonner and Lola Bad\u00eda de les ba\u00e8sties (Book of the Beasts), a Llullian adaptation of the old Iranian Book of Kalila and Dimna with some LOCHNER, STEFAN (1400\/1410\u20131451) references to the French Roman de Renard. The most important painter of the early Cologne school In search of a literary vehicle for his message, Llull of painting, Lochner is the only artist whose name can attempted autobiography, so Desconhort (1295) and be associated with individual works. However, the entire Cant de Ramon (1300), two splendid lyric poems, attribution of his body of works is based on Albrecht explain from a personal point of view the disappoint- D\u00fcrer\u2019s 1530 diary entry, in which he mentions the altar- ments and failures of his career. In the process Llull piece in Cologne he saw painted by a \u201cMaster Stefan.\u201d himself becomes a new literary character: a poor, old, The work in question is presumed to be the altarpiece and despised man who has devoted his life to revealing representing the patron saints of the city in attendance at a treasury of knowledge, an art given to him by God. A the Adoration of the Magi (now in Cologne cathedral), short late prose work, Phantasticus (1311), offers the the most significant altarpiece produced in Cologne. most complete picture of this personage, whom, as was All other works associated with Lochner are attributed noted above, he sometimes called \u201cRamon lo Foll.\u201d through stylistic affinity to this piece. As a result of the meager documentation, some scholarship has cast Plant de la Verge and Llibre de Santa Maria, both doubt on the identity of the creator of these works. The probably written between 1290 and 1293, are two historical Stefan Lochner, the only Stefan in the Cologne pieces of devotional literature: the former, in verse, is guilds, was active ca. 1435\u20131451, and is presumed to a moving description of Christ\u2019s Passion, the latter, in have been born between 1400 and 1410 in Meersburg, on prose, an unusual application of the Llullian art to a Lake Constance. Little is known of his life, but he was prayer to the Virgin Mary. Another treatise with rich first documented as a master in Cologne in June, 1442, literary contents is the Arbre de filosofia d\u2019amor (Tree and died, probably of the plague, in September, 1451. of Philosophy of Love, 1289), which encloses a short, His life was probably short, as he died within a year of touching mystical novel. his parents. Two works are dated: the 1445 Presentation in the Temple (Lisbon, Gulbenkian Collection), and the In his immense encyclopedia of 1295\u20131296, the 1447 work of the same subject (Darmstadt, Hessisches (Arbre de ci\u00e8ncia) (Tree of Science) Llull included a Landesmuseum). little Arbre exemplifical (Tree of Examples), in which a preacher could find the way to \u201ctranslate science into Lochner\u2019s work often shows traces of Flemish real- exemplary literature.\u201d This work is the first of Llull\u2019s ism, causing some to question the nature of his training. contributions to homiletics, a trend that later developed His paintings show little stylistic relationship to works both into theoretical treatises\u2014Rhetorica nova (1302), from Lochner\u2019s homeland near Constance. Also, Loch- Liber de praedicatione (1304), Ars brevis pradicationis ner introduced numerous innovations to the essentially (1313)\u2014and sermon writing. Llull in later years, in fact, conservative Cologne school of painting. Lochner\u2019s put aside romance literary genres and devoted himself figures inhabited landscapes and architectural settings to sermon collections; the most important being Summa full of specific details that clearly reflect a familiarity sermonum of 1312\u20131313, which offers an unusual model with Flemish works. His work shows figures that have for preaching, since Llull wanted to persuade lay audi- somewhat more volume than previously seen, and these ences intellectually rather than to touch their hearts with figures exist in space far more effectively than those of moving anecdotes. his Cologne predecessors. See also Caxton, William; Nicholas of Cusa; Several of his works, such as the Nativity (Munich, Philip IV the Fair Alte Pinakothek), the Gulbenkian Presentation in the Temple, and the St. Jerome in his Cell (Raleigh, North Further Reading Carolina Museum of Art), all bear numerous similari- ties to the works of Robert Campin and his followers, Bonner, A., and Badia, L. Ramon Llull: Vida, pensament i obra particularly in the representation of interior spaces. liter\u00e0ria. Barcelona, 1988. Lochner\u2019s largest extant work, and the best known, is the previously noted City Patrons\u2019 Altarpiece or Dombild. Carreras y Artau, T., and J. Historia de lafilosof\u00eda espa[ola: This work seems to reflect both the knowledge of the Filosof\u00eda cristiana de los siglo XIII al XV. 2 vols. Madrid, Ghent Altarpiece, particularly on the exterior Annun- 1939\u201343. Hillgarth, J. N. Ramon Lull and Lullism in Fourteenth-Century France. Oxford, 1971. 412","ciation, and Lochner\u2019s characteristic sweetness, grace, L\u00d3PEZ DE AYALA, PERO and delicacy. The figures in this altarpiece are the first life-size figures painted in Cologne. afterward, Ayala was taken prisoner by the English at the battle of N\u00e1jera. Nevertheless, Lochner\u2019s paintings maintained links to the past and are noted for a tension between their fully During the reign of Enrique II, Ayala received many modeled forms and linear patterns. He also often used royal favors, including territorial possessions and politi- gold backgrounds and, like earlier Cologne painters, cal posts. His political activity greatly increased during outlined figures in red. Lochner\u2019s paintings are also the reign of Juan I, when he served as royal counselor characterized by a distinctly personal quality of calm and as ambassador to France. Although he opposed and sweetness, creating a sense of quiet mysticism. the plan of Juan I to assume the Portuguese throne and These qualities are created through idealization of fea- thereby unite the two kingdoms, Ayala participated in the tures, particularly those of women, and rich, glowing disastrous battle of Aljubarrota, where he was captured colors, often created with oil glazes. All these qualities by the Portuguese and imprisoned for two years. It is are perhaps best seen in his Madonna of the Rosebower probable that some of his writings were done during (Cologne, Wallraf-Richartz-Museum). this period, especially the Libro de la caza de las aves and some poetic works. Ayala\u2019s importance and influ- Further Reading ence continued to grow during the reign of Enrique III. He was a member of the Council of Regents during the Corley, Brigitte. \u201cA Plausible Provenance for Stefan Lochner?\u201d king\u2019s minority and served as a negotiator in the peace Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Kunstgeschichte 59 (1996): 78\u201396. talks with Portugal. In the mid-1390s, Ayala spent sev- eral years in semiretirement at his estate in \u00c1lava and F\u00f6rstesr, Otto H. Stefan Lochner: Ein Maler zu K\u00f6ln. Frankfurt at the adjacent Hieronymite monastery. It is believed am Main: Prestel, 1938. that he wrote his chronicles and Libro del linaje de Ayala during this time. In 1399, he was appointed grand Goldberg, Gisela, and Gisela Scheffler. Altdeutsche Gem\u00e4lde, chancellor of Castile. K\u00f6ln und Nordwestdeutschland. Alte Pinakotek, M\u00fcnchen. 2 vols. Bayerische Staatsgem\u00e4ldesammlung Gem\u00e4ldekataloge In addition to being an impressive political and mili- 14. Munich: Bayerische Staatsgem\u00e4ldesammlung, 1972, vol. tary leader who was personally acquainted with popes 1, pp. 190\u2013210. and kings, Ayala must also be acknowledged as one of the three major literary figures of his century. Juan Ruiz, Stefan Lochner, Meister zu K\u00f6ln: Herkunft, Werke, Wirkung, ed. Juan Manuel, and Pero L\u00f3pez de Ayala all in their own Frank G\u00fcnter Zehnder. Cologne: Wallraf-Richartz-Museum, way reflect the social, economic, and political milieu in 1993. which they lived as well as their own personal reactions to their circumstances. Although a self-consciousness as Zehnder, Frank G\u00fcnter. Katalog der Altk\u00f6lner Malerei. Kataloge literary creators is apparent in the work of each of these des \u201cWallraf-Richartz-Museums 11. Cologne: Stadt K\u00f6ln, authors, their primary purpose remains didactic\u2014rang- 1990, pp. 212\u2013244. ing from the jocular tongue-in-cheek admonitions of Ruiz to the chivalric preoccupations and moralizing of Daniel M. Levine Manuel to the almost ascetic severity of Ayala. As the most important writer of the last half of the fourteenth L\u00d3PEZ DE AYALA, PERO century, Ayala\u2019s prose and poetic works are significant (1332\u20131407) for a number of reasons. Linguistically, they comprise an extensive and reliable source of late-fourteenth- and Pero L\u00f3pez de Ayala was a chronicler, poet, and states- early fifteenth-century Spanish. His chronicles are of man who lived in a period that spanned the reigns of five great historical value as they are a major source of Castilian kings. He was born into a wealthy, noble family information concerning events in Spain from 1350 to in the northern province of Alava. Although not a great 1396. The epoch that Ayala chronicles is a period of deal is known of his youth, Ayala\u2019s knowledge of Latin crisis and of such peninsular and international conflicts and French, plus his interest in the Bible and other reli- as civil and religious wars in Spain, the Hundred Years\u2019 gious writings may have come from early ecclesiastical War, the Black Death, and the schism in the Catholic training by his uncle, Cardinal Pedro G\u00f3mez Barroso, Church. An eyewitness to many of these events, Ayala who raised and educated him. Much of what is known of identifies himself with the purpose and norms of ancient Ayala\u2019s activities is derived from the chronicles he wrote chroniclers, explaining in his preface that the purpose of describing the reigns of Pedro I (1350\u20131369), Enrique knowing about events in the past is to serve as a guide II (1369\u20131379), Juan I (1379\u20131390), and Enrique III for present actions. He further comments that his sole (1390\u20131406). Beginning with his first appearance in the intention is to tell the truth based on what he himself Cr\u00f3nicas des los reyes de Castilla: don Pedro (Chronicle observed and from testimony of trustworthy persons. of the Kings of Castile: Peter I) in 1353 as a page se- Nevertheless, the chronicler\u2019s impartiality, and at times lected to carry the king\u2019s banner, Ayala served Pedro in various capacities for over a dozen years. By 1367, however, he had joined Enrique of Trast\u00e1mara, Pedro\u2019s illegitimate half-brother and rival for the throne. Shortly 413","L\u00d3PEZ DE AYALA, PERO fine, satirically traced pictures of medieval society have, above all else, attracted readers to Rimado. These even his veracity, has been questioned because he reports vigorous scenes of contemporary society and court life so many barbarous acts, and because he views Pedro are found in the first part of the book, along with other I primarily as a negative example. Ayala\u2019s support of poems that arise from the chancellor\u2019s personal expe- the Trast\u00e1maran pretender and his later involvement riences and his reflections. The poet\u2019s description of in the royal court further clouds the picture. The two personages in the royal courts, the almost caricaturelike manuscript traditions abreviada and vulgar suggest a presentation of merchants and lawyers, prefigure later process of revision that served to soften the condemna- satirical works that culminate in the mordant sarcasm tion of Pedro I after the reconciliation of the two dynastic and ridicule of Francisco Quevedo, as well as in subse- lines, with the marriage of the grandchildren of the two quent vignettes of manners and customs. contenders. The more extensive final part of the work provides The literary nature of these narratives and the a focus on doctrine rather than experience. Ayala chronicler\u2019s acute awareness of literary style must demonstrates originality in combining confessional also be taken into account. Among the variety of liter- and doctrinal themes and materials based on the Bible ary devices used in the chronicles, Ayala includes the and the Morals of St. Gregory in order to produce a skillful arrangement of all the contributing elements to didactic exposition in verse. Many of the themes of the form an organic unity: tense choice, paired words or fifteenth-century rhymmed confessions undoubtedly doublets, alternation, contrast, parallelism, repetition, received some impetus from the meditations on life, and portraiture. The author\u2019s skill in the use of direct death, original sin, and the brief duration of worldly address such as dialogues, one-liners, discourses, letters, gains portrayed in Rimado. In addition to influencing the and sayings enliven narrative passages and reveal the verse forms, topics, and themes of later poets, Ayala\u2019s dramatic nature of the events. The dramatic structure devout and moving poems dedicated to the Virgin had of the death scenes is also evident in other episodes; an impact on religious lyrical poetry of the fifteenth for example, the farewell scene between Le\u00f3nor de century. Ayala also made an important contribution to Guzm\u00e1n and her son Fadrique, the confrontation with Castilian intellectual life through his translations of the Queen Mother at Toro, the departure of Pedro I from works of Livy, Gregory, Isidore, and Boethius. Burgos, and the papal election that began the schism. Ayala must be recognized as a talented prose stylist as See also Enrique II, King of Castile; Juan Manuel he relates events more varied and fascinating than many fictional sagas, consisting of wars, fratricides, marriages, Further Reading mistresses, international intrigues, and power struggles at the highest levels of government. Garc\u00eda, M. Obra y personalidad del Canciller Ayala. Madrid, 1983. Ayala\u2019s long poetic work Rimado de Palacio, completed in 1404, is a highly personal and creative L\u00f3pez de Ayala, P. Libra Rimado de Palacio. 2 vols. Ed. J. Joset. expression of the author\u2019s moral and philosophical pre- Madrid, 1978. occupations. Most of its 2,168 stanzas (totalling more than 8,000 lines) are written in the verse form cuaderna Strong, E. B. \u201cThe Rimado de Palacio: L\u00f3pez de Ayala\u2019s Rimed via, characterized by four-line stanzas, each fourteen- Confession.\u201d Hispanic Review 37 (1969), 439\u201351. syllable line divided by a caesura after the seventh syllable and ending in uniform consonantal rhyme. In Tate, R. B. \u201cL\u00f3pez de Ayala, Humanist Historian?\u201d Hispanic spite of being the last of the cuaderna via poets, Ayala Review 25 (1957), 157\u201374. demonstrates poetic innovations that include increased use of the eight-syllable line and the introduction of arte Wilkins, C. Pern L\u00f3pez de Ayala. Boston, 1989. mayor, both most apparent in the Cancionero portion, stanzas 732\u2013919. At the center of Cancionero, the poet Constance L. Wilkins again reveals his concern for the Church in a long al- legory in which the ship of St. Peter is being torn apart L\u00d3PEZ DE C\u00d3RDOBA, LEONOR by the destructive storm of the Great Schism. (b. 1362) The Rimado consists of a large number of poems Born in 1362, Leonor L\u00f3pez de C\u00f3rdoba composed of varied content and structure whose composition one of the most singular chronicles of the late Middle undoubtedly spans decades and whose impetus springs Ages in Castile. Her Memorias, which were dictated to from the experiences of a long, adventurous life as well a scribe around the beginning of the fifteenth century, as from periods of reading and meditation. To say that are a personal testimony of a society ravaged by civil it is a didactic-moral work or a long confessional poem war, pestilence, and class upheaval. is true. Nonetheless, this would slight the literary value and variety of Ayala\u2019s forcefully sober verse. Ayala\u2019s Due to the dramatic circumstances of the narrator\u2019s life, the Memorias present a point of view that is rare in the historiography of this period. Leonor L\u00f3pez was the sole survivor of a family destroyed because of its allegiance to Pedro I, the legitimate king of Castile, 414","during the dynastic struggle he waged against his half- L\u00d3PEZ DE MENDOZA, I\u00d1IGO brother, Enrique de Trast\u00e1mara. The social climate of the decades following this civil war was dominated by shared intellectual pursuits with Enrique de Villena, one the usurper\u2019s followers, who spread propaganda allud- of the great learned men of his time. L\u00f3pez de Mendoza ing to the brutality of Pedro \u201cthe Cruel,\u201d and the low distinguished himself both militarily and literarily on social class of his supporters, as a means of justifying the Granadan frontier, at \u00c1greda in 1429 and again at their overthrow of the rightful monarch. In an effort to Ja\u00e9n in 1438. Although he fought alongside Juan II and repudiate such rumors in her Memorias, Leonor L\u00f3pez his confidant \u00c1lvaro de Luna, Constable of Castile, at described in detail the nobility of her lineage, the bravery the battle of Olmedo in 1445 defending the interests of of her father in defense of the loyalist cause, and the the monarchy against the challenges of the Infantes de atrocities that Enrique de Trast\u00e1mara himself inflicted Arag\u00f3n, L\u00f3pez de Mendoza quickly became don \u00c1lva- upon her family. Her work is a historical curiosity, both ro\u2019s sworn enemy. Along with other powerful nobles, as a document of a dispossessed class, and as a feat of L\u00f3pez de Mendoza then conspired to topple Luna from honor performed verbally by a woman. power and went on to write admonitory poetry about the example of Luna\u2019s life and execution in 1453. Memorias also merits attention for its literary signifi- cance as one of the earliest examples of autobiographical The Marqu\u00e9s, as L\u00f3pez de Mendoza was referred to expression produced in medieval Spain. In order to ex- simply in his time, surrounded himself in Guadalajara onerate herself, Leonor L\u00f3pez elaborated a self-portrait with artists, writers, and thinkers like Nu\u00f1o de Guzm\u00e1n, that exemplified the conduct deemed appropriate for a Pero D\u00edaz de Toledo, and Mart\u00edn Gonz\u00e1lez de Lucena, noble lady. Her persuasive manipulation of language is and was perhaps the greatest single cultural and artistic particularly evident in her use of motifs derived from force of his time. As both intellectual and patron, L\u00f3pez pious literature to associate herself with a popular ideal de Mendoza was the single most important figure in the of Christian virtue. propagation of humanistic knowledge in Castile during the first half of the fifteenth century. In addition to having Despite their limitations as a historical record and gathered in Guadalajara the most significant library of artistic work, the Memorias of Leonor L\u00f3pez are notable humanistic works in lay hands and patronized the trans- as a re-creation of the past that preserves a uniquely lation of Homer\u2019s Iliad, Plato, Ovid, Cicero, Seneca, feminine interpretation of the values of medieval Cas- Dante, and Boccaccio into Castilian, L\u00f3pez de Mendoza tilian society. was in his own right a celebrated poet, literary critic, and theoretician. Although he collected Latin manuscripts, See also Pedro I the Cruel, King of Castile he could not read Latin, but he read several vernaculars fluently and was aware of contemporary developments Further Reading in European poetry, especially in France and Italy. His Carta e prohemio al Condestable de Portugal, which Ayerbe-Chaux, R. \u201cLas memorias de Leonor L\u00f3pez de C\u00f3rdoba.\u201d draws heavily on classical and patristic writers as well Journal of Hispanic Philology 2 (1977\u201378), 11\u201333. as Boccaccio\u2019s De genealogia deorum, is considered the first concerted work of literary theory and criticism in Deyennond, A. \u201cSpain\u2019s First Women Writers.\u201d In Women in Castilian. Its novelty lies in its historical descriptions of Hispanic Literature: Icons and Fallen Idols. Ed. B. Miller, different genres and the catalogue of works that it con- Berkeley, Calif., 1983. 26\u201352. tains, just as it offers an evaluation of the qualities and defects of the poets he mentions. In addition, his Sonetos Amanda Curry fechos al it\u00e1lico modo (1438), which follow the example of Dante and Petrarch, mark the first coherent attempt L\u00d3PEZ DE MENDOZA, I\u00d1IGO to cultivate the sonnet form in Castilian. Besides these (1398\u20131458) two works and his patronage, L\u00f3pez de Mendoza was a prolific writer responsible for a vast body of work in both Born in 1398, I\u00f1igo L\u00f3pez de Mendoza (first marqu\u00e9s de prose and verse that deals with moral, religious, politi- Santillana, and se\u00f1or de Hita and Buitrago) was the son cal, and sentimental themes, all of which contributed to of Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, the influential admiral his vast fame during his lifetime. Among the best known of Castile. His uncle was Pero L\u00f3pez de Ayala, poet, of his lyrical works are his serranillas, or pastourelles, statesman, military figure, and the commanding chan- that tell of rural love encounters between knights and cellor of Castile during the last quarter of the fourteenth rustic shepherdesses. His ambitious narrative and alle- century. During the reign of Juan II of Castile, L\u00f3pez gorical poems, known as decires (B\u00edas contra Fortuna, de Mendoza was head of the powerful Mendoza clan, Doctrinal de Privados, Comedieta de Ponza), are replete which was connected through marriage to many of the with mythological, biblical, and other learned themes most influential families of the kingdom. that attest to his humanistic knowledge and intellectual aspirations. The Comedieta (1436), a patriotic composi- L\u00f3pez de Mendoza is one of the major cultural and political figures of the fifteenth century. He spent a part of his youth in Arag\u00f3n, where he became friends and 415","L\u00d3PEZ DE MENDOZA, I\u00d1IGO of their most celebrated compositions have been lost. Although the brothers worked quite independently of tion that exalts the Arag\u00f3nese in their Italian campaign each another, some commissions appear to have been at the naval battle of Ponza, represents the culmination joint undertakings, and the intensity of each brother\u2019s of L\u00f3pez de Mendoza\u2019s allegorical works. It is built exploration of pictorial realism suggests a greater degree upon a complicated image pattern developed through of contact and collaboration between the two than we the use of highly learned language and allusion. B\u00edas now suppose. contra Fortuna, written in 1448 as a consolation to mark the political imprisonment of a cousin by don \u00c1lvaro Pietro, traditionally considered the elder brother, has de Luna, marks the climax of the theme of Fortune in usually been overlooked in comparison with Ambrogio, his work. In contradistinction to the difficult allegory who has a greater reputation for invention. However, of the Comedieta, B\u00edas, the Greek philosopher who is Pietro\u2019s own brilliant technical innovation is shown as the spokesperson for Santillana, makes his views on early as his first documented work, a polyptych painted Fortune and the world clearly known. The Doctrinal for the high altar of rhe parish church of Santa Maria in reveals a final vindictive side of L\u00f3pez de Mendoza\u2019s Arezzo (1320). In one portion of the Arezzo Polyptych, character, in which he employs Fortune and confession the frame is treated as if it were contiguous with the to make \u00c1lvaro de Luna, his dead enemy, denounce his architecture of the painted narrative, so that the pilasters own transgressions. and arches framing the Annunciation are seen as support- ing elements for the front wall of Mary\u2019s chamber. The When L\u00f3pez de Mendoza died in 1458, the event space of this room is seen logically as extending back inspired his contemporaries to write a number of elegies from the supporting columns and arches on the surface, and other literary compositions to mourn his passing. creating an illusion of a box of space extending beyond the frame. This was an advance in a direct line with the See also Boccaccio, Giovanni; Dante Alighieri; development of one-point perspective a century later, Guzm\u00e1n, Domingo de; Petrarca, Francesco and it was an idea to which Pietro would subsequently return even more daringly. Analysis of Pietro\u2019s forms Further Reading in the Arezzo Polyptych reveals a m\u00e9lange of stylistic sources influencing his art. In the central panel of the Lapesa, R. La obra literaria del Marqu\u00e9s de Santillana. Madrid, Madonna and Child especially, the Madonna exhibits 1959. a graceful sway and pattern indebted to Duccio; the pronounced twist of her neck recalls Giovanni Pisano\u2019s Nader, H. The Mendoza Family in the Spanish Renaissance, sculptures for the facade of the cathedral in Siena; and 1350\u20131550. Rutgers, N.J., 1979. her firm support of the child\u2019s solidly rounded body echoes Giotto\u2019s massive forms. Schiff, M. La biblioth\u00e8que du marquis de Santillane. Paris, 1905. Important pictorial features are found in Pietro\u2019s most extensive surviving work, the frescoes in the left transept E. Michael Gerli of the lower basilica of San Francesco in Assisi. These narrate the Passion and Resurrection of Christ and the LORENZETTI, PIETRO Stigmatization of Saint Francis; and there is an unusual (c. 1280\u20131348) AND AMBROGIO section of trompe l\u2019oeil depictions of chapel furnishings, (c. 1290\u20131348) including an unoccupied pew, a fictive altarpiece, and a niche containing liturgical objects. These frescoes The brothers Pietro Lorenzetti and Ambrogio Lorenzetti are undocumented, and their dating has provoked con- were Sienese painters; they represent two of the most troversy, but most scholars place them c. 1320. Many radical and innovative forces in Trecento art. Pietro and scenes, such as the Entry into Jerusalem and the epic Lorenzetti were probably pupils of Duccio, and they Crucifixion, continue the Sienese tradition of sensitivity both enlarged on the study of narrative and pictorial to color and love of profusion, but they are characterized realism common to Sienese and Florentine art at this by an unprecedented wealth of observation. The Last time. Their art manifests an interesting admixture of the Supper, for example, deftly juxtaposes three distinct styles of both schools, combining Sienese sensitivity to types of light in a confrontation of the mundane and the color and line with Florentine monumentality. divine. A remarkably detailed night sky, the first por- trayal of its kind, meticulously differentiates the light of Relatively few documents regarding the life or artistic the moon, stars, and meteors streaking across the heav- activity of either Pietro or Ambrogio have come down ens above the structure containing the main scene. This to us. Although Lorenzo Ghiberti, in the first written natural light is contrasted with the artificial light of the account of Ambrogio, provides a long and enthusiastic hearth fire in the kitchen, which casts the first shadows discussion of his work (Commentarii, c. 1450), he never mentions Pietro in his survey of Sienese artists. Vasari (Lives, 1568) did not even realize that the two artists were brothers; he misidentifed one of them as Pietro Laurati. Reconstruction of their careers has understand- ably proved to be difficult, especially because some 416","in western art since antiquity. Both of these lights pale LORENZETTI, PIETRO AND AMBROGIO in relation to the floodlit interior of the supper chamber, which seems to be illuminated by the supernatural glory Martini, on a cycle of frescoes illustrating the life of of Christ and his disciples. In another astonishing step the Virgin for the facade of the hospital of Santa Maria toward realism, Pietro makes it clear that the narratives della Scala in Siena. (These frescoes are now lost, but are to be understood as a sequence of stories unfolding a recorded inscription bore the date 1335.) Pietro also over time; the moon, high over the pavilion in the Last worked alongside Ambrogio on a fresco cycle for the Supper, is shown to be setting behind the Mount of Ol- chapter hall of the monastery of San Francesco in Siena, ives in the adjacent Arrest of Christ. Other frescoes in of which a Crucifixion and a Resurrected Christ survive the left transept, such as the Deposition from the Cross (possibly 1336). A Massacre of the Innocents from a and the Entombment, do away with all anecdotal detail fresco cycle in San Clemente ai Servi in Siena and an to approach the monumental grandeur and dramatic altarpiece depicting stories of the Life of the Blessed tension of Giotto\u2019s narratives. The Deposition, in which Humilitas (Florence, Uffizi) are two other works fre- Christ\u2019s broken body is ingeniously interlaced with the quently attributed to Pietro. living, forms one of the most sustained images of grief in western art. Lorenzo Ghiberti considered Ambrogio Lorenzetti the greatest Sienese painter of the 1300s, surpassing Three securely dated works succeeded the Assisi even Simone Martini in ability and sophistication. A frescoes: the Carmine Altarpiece of 1327\u20131329 (Siena, Madonna and Child from Vico L\u2019Abate (signed and Pinacoteca; New Haven, Yale Museum; Princeton, dated 1319; Florence, Museo Arcivescovile del Cestello) Princeton Museum), a polyptych made to celebrate is the earliest of only three dated works by Ambrogio. the final approval of the Carmelite order by Pope John It shows the originality of the artist\u2019s concepts from the XXIII in 1326 for its Sienese church of San Niccol\u00f2; the beginning of his career. Ambrogio\u2019s panel is based on a Uffizi Madonna and Child (Florence, Uffizi; signed and Byzantine type of the Virgin as the throne of God, and dated 1340); and the Birth of the Virgin (Siena, Museo the rigidly frontal, iconic pose of the Madonna adheres dell\u2019Opera Metropolitana; commissioned 1335, signed closely to the archaic format. The sovereign detachment and dated 1342). This last altarpiece, made as part of between mother and God, typically upright in front of a cycle of Marian altarpieces celebrating feasts of the the Madonna, has, however, here been replaced by a Virgin surrounding Duccio\u2019s Maest\u00e0 in the cathedral of restless, squirming Christ child seeking his mother\u2019s Siena, returns to the integration of frame and painting attention. Both figures have the solidity and roundness seen in the Arezzo Polyptych of twenty-two years earlier. of Giotto\u2019s paintings, and the throne is also presented Here the illusion of continuity is much more thorough. as a spatially receding three-dimensional structure. This We seem to be peering into a miniature Gothic palace modernization of an ancient type in the latest Giot- which is structurally supported by the columns and toesque idiom reveals Ambrogio\u2019s special understand- arches of the frame and from which the exterior walls ing of the Florentines\u2019 achievement. In fact, Ambrogio have been removed (as in a dollhouse) to allow us to worked periodically in Florence between 1318 and 1332, witness the events within. And although this work is and he is listed in the registry of the Florentine paint- technically a polyptych (the two lateral panels of saints ers\u2019 guild in 1327. The Vico L\u2019Abate panel is a prime originally flanking the Birth are now lost), there is none example of the astonishing variety and inventiveness of compartmentalization traditionally seen in separate that both Pietro and Ambrogio brought to the theme of panels. The space of one panel is treated as continuous the Madonna and child. Both artists composed cease- with that of the next; thus, the two panels on the right less variations on this popular devotional subject, but convey information concerning the same time and place, Ambrogio\u2019s Madonnas, especially, attained a level of Mary\u2019s birthing chamber. To emphasize this, the figure iconographic and aesthetic sophistication that seems to of the woman bearing a fly whisk continues on either belong more to the Renaissance, or even to the Baroque, side of the vertical pier of the frame. Also gone is the than to the Trecento. A few of Ambrogio\u2019s groupings traditional flattening backdrop of gold leaf signifying a of the Madonna and child are shown as if responding sacred event. Instead, an opulently appointed interior, to the viewer\u2019s presence, as in the Madonna del Latte described in rich patterns from the vault to the floor (Siena, Palazzo Arcivescovile), in which the suckling tiles, defines a remarkably convincing illusion of spatial child looks out at the viewer with intense curiosity; recession. In the left panel depicting Joachim and the or the Rapolano Madonna (Siena, Pinacoteca), which herald, the setting suggests a vast structure beyond the portrays a Christ child so surprised and frightened by two visible chambers, indicating Pietro\u2019s concern to the attention coming from our direction that he crushes construct a completely plausible world for his figures his pet goldfinch. This psychologizing of the mother\u2019s to inhabit. and the child\u2019s response to their surroundings reaches a climax in the Sant\u2019Agostino Maest\u00e0 in Siena (possibly Pietro worked, together with Ambrogio and Simone 1339), the last surviving fragment of a fresco cycle illustrating episodes of the life of Saint Catherine of 417","LORENZETTI, PIETRO AND AMBROGIO complex philosophical underpinnings\u2014along the lines of antique Aristotelian, Ciceronian, or more strictly me- Alexandria for an Augustinian chapter house formerly dieval tracts\u2014are still disputed. We may take comfort in adjacent to the church. The Maest\u00e0 depicts Mary and the fact that even during the Trecento, visitors to the sala Christ adored by saints who bear the attributes of their needed the learned interpretation of a guide in order to faith; these include some who were brutally martyred: understand the extremely intricate allegorical message Saint Bartholemew with his flayed skin, Saint Agatha of the cycle. The fresco juxtaposes the elements of just with her breasts, and Saint Catherine with her severed and harmonious rule with the evil elements of tyranny, head all kneel and present their tokens of faith to the contrasting the effects of each form of rule on city and child. This grisly spectacle strikes terror into the child, country. The mural is filled with visual puns (Harmony, who staggers unsteadily backward in an attempt to es- for instance, is shown with a wood plane, smoothing cape\u2014the most natural response a child could have. out any unevenness) and references to the antique (the figure of Peace is derived from an antique Roman coin). Some of Ambrogio\u2019s patrons apparently felt that his In his depiction of the prosperous city, Ambrogio cre- daringly human interpretation of the divine breached ated an unparalleled catalog of the myriad activities the limits of decorum. The chapel of Monte Siepi in of town life. Nothing else in medieval art prepares us the rural abbey of San Galgano near Siena was built for the panoramic landscape adjacent to the well-gov- to honor this Sienese saint and to commemorate a vi- erned city, which is the first landscape since antiquity, sion of the Madonna that Galgano had on this site. The and really the first \u201cportrait\u201d of a particular terrain\u2014a surviving frescoes are fragmentary; but Ambrogio\u2019s glance out the window of this hall reveals the close original program for the chapel, c. 1336, included a affinity between the fresco and the Tuscan countryside depiction of Galgano\u2019s vision, portraying a procession surrounding Siena. of saints and angels on the side walls converging, along with the visitors inside the chapel, toward the Madonna As noted above, Ambrogio collaborated with Pietro enthroned as queen of heaven on the wall behind the on (lost) frescoes for a hospital in Siena, and on frescoes altar. By portraying saints on the walls flanking the en- for a Franciscan chapter house (the latter included a throned Madonna, Ambrogio involved the entire space painting of a typhoon, since lost, that Ghiberti praised of the chapel, surrounding the viewer with Galgano\u2019s highly). Ambrogio also painted an altarpiece of the vision\u2014a bold experiment that anticipates the carefully Presentation at the Temple and Purification of Mary coordinated chapel interiors of the seventeenth century. (1342; Florence, Uffizi) for the same cycle in the ca- The complex iconographic program for the wall por- thedral at Siena for which Pietro executed his Birth of trayed the Virgin\u2019s central role in the mystery of human the Virgin. Like Pietro\u2019s work, Ambrogio\u2019s Presentation redemption: she was shown both as the exalted queen of is startling for its sophisticated suggestion of space and heaven at the top of the fresco and as the humble Virgin light. Ambrogio\u2019s last signed and dated work is from Annunciate at the bottom. As the discovery (in 1996) of 1344: an Annunciation (Siena, Pinacoteca) painted for the sinopie underlying the frescoes revealed, Ambrogio the chamber of the tax magistrate in the Palazzo Pub- originally portrayed the Virgin of the annunciation cow- blico in Siena. The moment of incarnation depicted here ering in utter terror before the angel, while the Maest\u00e0 presents an interpretation of great theological subtlety, above showed her enthroned without the child, wearing and the spatial construction of the panel shows the tile a crown, and bearing worldly symbols of power\u2014the floor converging to a single vanishing point; this is the orb and scepter\u2014in her hands. Both of these unique closest any Trecento painting comes to true one-point images were suppressed shortly after completion of the perspective. frescoes: the trembling annunciate was painted over by another artist, who replaced her with a typical meekly Ambrogio and Pietro both evidently died of the accepting Madonna; and the empress was transformed plague in 1348; with their deaths, Siena\u2019s period of into the more usual image of motherhood by placing cultural ascendancy came to an end. the Christ child on her lap. Presumably, the patrons had been disturbed by Ambrogio\u2019s provocative interpreta- See also Duccio di Buoninsegna; Martini, Simone tions and had subsequently commissioned something more conventional. Further Reading From 1337 to 1340, under commission from Siena\u2019s Borsook, Eve. Ambrogio Lorenzetti. Florence: Sadea Sansoni, ruling Council of Nine, Ambrogio worked on the most 1966. important surviving cycle of medieval secular decora- tions, the Allegory and Effects of Good and Bad Gov- Brandi, Cesare. Pietro Lorenzetti: Affreschi nella basilica infe- ernment, painted on three walls of the Sala della Pace riore di Assisi. Rome: Pirelli, 1957. (or Sala dei Nove), one of the ruling council\u2019s meeting rooms in the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena. This cycle \u2014\u2014. Pietro Lorenzetti. Rome: Edizioni Mediteranee, 1958. is almost completely devoid of religious content; its Carli, Enzo. Pietro Lorenzetti. Milan: A. Martello, 1956. \u2014\u2014. I Lorenzetti. Milan: Fabbri, 1965. \u2014\u2014. La pittura senese del Trecento. Milan: Electa, 1981. 418","Cole, Bruce. Sienese Painting from Its Origins to the Fifteenth LOTHAIR III Century. New York: Harper and Row, 1980. German and Pepin. While their father emerged victori- DeWald, Ernest T. Pietro Lorenzetti. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard ous and in 834 confined Lothair to Italy, the remaining University Press, 1930. years of Louis\u2019s reign saw continued political unrest. Frugoni, Chiara. Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti, trans. L. Upon Louis\u2019s death in 840, Lothair I proclaimed Pelletti. Florence: Scala, 1988. Maginnis, Hayden B. J. again the Ordinatio imperii and turned against his sur- \u201cPietro Lorenzetti: A Chronology.\u201d Art Bulletin, 66, 1984, viving brothers, Louis the German and Charles. The pp. 183\u2013211. power struggle among those rulers led to the Treaty of Verdun (843), dividing the Carolingian territories into \u2014\u2014. Painting in the Age of Giotto: A Historical Reevaluation. separate kingdoms for Louis, Charles, and Lothair. This University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1997. testified to the end of the ideal of a united empire, though Lothair retained the imperial title. Norman, Diana. \u201c\u2018Love Justice, You Who Judge the Earth\u2019: The Paintings of the Sala dei Nove in the Palazzo Pubblico, Siena.\u201d Lothair was in conflict with one or both brothers In Siena, Florence, and Padua: Art, Society, and Religion most of the rest of his life. Upon his death in 855, his 1280\u20131400, Vol. 2, Case Studies, ed. Diana Norman. New lands were divided among his sons, Louis II (d. 875), Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995, pp. 145\u2013167. Lothair II (d. 869), and Charles of Provence (d. 863). Louis II alone was left the imperial crown, which he Offner, Richard. \u201cReflections on Ambrogio Lorenzetti.\u201d Gazette had received in 850. des Beaux Arts, 56, 1960, pp. 235\u2013238. See also Louis the Pious Rowley, George. Ambrogio Lorenzetti, 2 vols. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1958. Rubinstein, Nicolai. \u201cPoliti- Further Reading cal Ideas in Sienese Art: The Frescoes by Ambrogio Lorenzetti and Taddeo di Bartolo in the Palazzo Pubblico.\u201d Journal of the Ganshof, Fran\u00e7ois L. The Carolingians and the Frankish Monar- Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 21, 1958, pp. 179\u2013207. chy: Studies in Carolingian History, trans. Janet Sondheimer. London: Longman, 1971, pp. 289\u2013302. Southard, Edna. The Frescoes in Siena\u2019s Palazzo Pubblico, 1289\u20131359: Studies in Imagery and Relations to Other Com- McKitterick, Rosamond. The Frankish Kingdoms Under the munal Palaces in Tuscany. New York: Garland, 1979. Carolingians, 751\u2013987. London: Longman, 1983. \u2014\u2014. \u201cAmbrogio Lorenzetti\u2019s Frescoes in the Sala della Pace: Nelson, Janet L. Charles the Bald. London: Longman, 1992. A Change of Names.\u201d Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Rich\u00e9, Pierre. The Carolingians: A Family Who Forged Europe, Institutes in Florenz, 24, 1980, pp. 361\u2013365. trans. Michael I. Allen. Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl- Starn, Randolph, and Loren Partridge. \u201cThe Republican Regime vania Press, 1993. of the Sala dei Nove in Siena, 1338\u20131340.\u201d In Arts of Power: Three Halls of State in Italy, 1300\u20131600. Berkeley: University Celia Chazelle of California Press, 1992, pp. 11\u201359. LOTHAR III (1075\u20131137) Volpe, Carlo. Pietro Lorenzetti. Milan: Electa, 1989. Lothar III of Supplinburg was born shortly after his Gustav Medicus father, Count Gebhard of Supplinburg, died in battle against King Henry IV. Historians know little about LOTHAIR I (795\u2013855) his youth, his rise to prominence, or exactly why King Henry V named Lothar as successor to the late Magnus King of Lotharingia and emperor. The eldest son of Billung, duke of Saxony, on August 25, 1106. Soon after, Emperor Louis the Pious (778\u2013840) and Irmengarde, having grown still more powerful through other inheri- Lothair I is remembered chiefly for his role in dismem- tances and his own political and military ability, Lothar bering the empire constructed by Charlemagne. In 817, became the leader of the opposition to Henry V. Louis the Pious sought to ensure the empire\u2019s unity after his death by promulgating the Ordinatio imperii. This With the death of Emperor Henry V in 1125 with- divided the Carolingian territories into kingdoms for out a son, German princes reasserted their traditional Lothair I and his brothers, Pepin of Aquitaine (800\u2013838) right to elect a new king. Representative magnates of and Louis the German (804\u2013876), while leaving Italy the four ethnic divisions of Swabia, Bavaria, Saxony, under their father\u2019s nephew, Bernard. Lothair, who was and Franconia were delegated to the election at Mainz made co-emperor, was granted the largest, central realm, under the leadership of the archbishop. Although Duke including Aix-la-Chapelle and Rome. After his father\u2019s Frederick II of Swabia, Henry V\u2019s nephew and heir, and death, he was to exercise supremacy over his brothers Margrave Leopold III of Austria found a great deal of and Bernard. support, the archbishop promoted the case of the duke of Saxony, Lothar von Supplinburg. Lothar\u2019s party prob- Difficulties emerged in 817 with the revolt of Ber- ably gained the support of the main holdout, the Welf nard, who died after being blinded as punishment. Italy duke of Bavaria, Henry the Black, with a promised mar- was transferred to Lothair. In 823, the birth of another son, Charles the Bald, to Louis the Pious (by his second wife, Judith) forced the emperor to modify his plans for the inheritance by allotting to Charles lands earlier assigned to his half-brothers. Lothair revolted in 830, and again in 833 with the help of his brothers Louis the 419","LOTHAR III March, 1131, Lothar acted as a groom and horse-marshal (Strator- und Marschaldienst), leading the pope\u2019s horse riage alliance between Henry\u2019s son, Henry the Proud, by the bridle and holding his stirrup during dismount- and Lothar\u2019s only child and heir, Gertrude. Elected on ing. The memorialization of this act with a fresco in the August 30 as king of the Romans, Lothar was crowned Vatican, implying that Lothar served as a vassal of the in Aachen about two weeks later. pope, later caused tension between imperial and papal ideologues. The succession did not go smoothly, however. Be- tween the Staufen Frederick II of Swabia and Lothar a In return for offering to conquer Rome for Innocent, new rivalry developed. The new king needed to assert Lothar tried to get back the old rights of investiture his control over royal and imperial rights and properties. of bishops that had been lost for the monarchy in the But royal prerogatives were mixed together with the Concordat of Worms. But Innocent only gave a promise personal inheritance of Henry V and the Salian dynasty of the imperial election. In late summer 1132, Lothar inherited by the Staufen. Because Frederick was reluc- began an expedition to Italy with a small army. His at- tant to turn over certain possessions, Lothar outlawed tack on Rome brought one success: Innocent crowned him at Christmas, 1125. Distracted by the defiance of Lothar and his wife, Richenza, emperor and empress Sobeslav of Bohemia, Lothar could not begin a military on June 4, 1133, although in the Lateran Palace, since campaign against the Staufen until summer 1127, when Anacletus\u2019s forces still held the Vatican. Again Lothar he began to besiege Nuremburg. There the Staufen party tried to reclaim investiture, but only received confirma- elected Frederick\u2019s younger brother Conrad as anti-king tion that his rights would be the same as his predeces- in December, 1127. This conflict disturbed the peace of sors. In negotiations about the Mathildine lands, he the empire until Conrad\u2019s capitulation in 1135. Nine- gained more success. Lothar recognized the claims of teenth-century historians inflated these disagreements overlordship by the church, but he gained use of the into a grand vendetta between two dynasties, the Welf lands in exchange for an annual payment of 100 pounds (or in Italian, Guelph) versus the Staufen (or in Italian, silver. Although the emperor immediately enfeoffed his Ghibelline after the castle Waiblingen). While such a son-in-law Henry the Proud with the lands, the papacy view oversimplified the issues involved, the competing tried to portray him as a vassal of the church. interests of these powerful families would recurrently affect imperial affairs for decades. Within months Lothar returned to Germany, un- able to defeat Anacletus\u2019s main ally, King Roger II of Meanwhile, Lothar was capably handling the affairs Sicily. Soon, Innocent was forced to flee Rome. Once of his kingdom. His exploitation of extinct noble dy- the Staufen had reconciled with Lothar, however, the nasties changed the political landscape. Lothar helped worsening plight of Innocent prompted Lothar to lead establish the Z\u00e4hringens in Burgundy as rivals to the a second, much larger, Italian expedition in 1136. In Staufen. Lothar\u2019s intervention of the succession of the northern Italy Lothar was triumphant; by the beginning duchy of Lower Lotharingia led to its breakup into the of 1137 he invaded the kingdom of Roger of Sicily. But duchies of Brabant and Limburg. In Saxony, his home the quarrels between pope and emperor over the dispo- territory, he enfeoffed the Askaniens with the Nord- sition of conquests and leadership, as well as the heat mark and the Wettins with the Marches of Meissen and of summer, led to the breakup of the campaign before Lausitz, dynasties that would, however, later become lasting success could be won. On the return northward rivals of the Welfs. Lothar made his will felt beyond his Lothar sickened, finally dying in Breitenwang near kingdom\u2019s borders. He carried out several campaigns Reutte in Tyrol on December 4, 1137. against the Slavs, collecting tribute from Poland and granting Pomerania as a fief. And a quick military Both his contemporaries and later historians have demonstration against the Danish, where rivalry for tended to judge Lothar harshly, especially those who the throne had caused disorder, encouraged the various resented his rather friendly relations with leaders of candidates to acknowledge his over-lordship almost the church. Other modern historians reject his image without bloodshed. as Pfaffenk\u00f6nig (parson\u2019s king): his quarrels with the pope and his wars with local territorial bishops belie Most importantly, Lothar became entangled in the that charge. The conflicts after his death that ruined his papal schism between Innocent II and Anacletus II. legacy were largely caused by the change in dynasty, Since both sides had respectable claims to the papacy, which Lothar had tried to forestall by giving the impe- Lothar faced a real dilemma about whom to recognize rial insignia to Henry the Proud. In many ways Lothar as legitimate pope. Under the influence of the important successfully expanded political authority in Saxony, Cistercian Abbot Bernard of Clairvaux and Norbert of Germany, and the empire. Xanten (the founder of the Premonstratentian order, whom Lothar had made archbishop of Magdeburg), See also Henry IV, Emperor; Roger II Lothar decided at a synod at W\u00fcrzburg in 1130 to give allegiance to Innocent. Greeting the pope in Li\u00e8ge in 420","Further Reading LOUIS IX Bernhardi, Wilhelm. Lothar von Supplinburg (1125\u20131127). embarkation of his army, estimated at 15,000\u201325,000 Jahrb\u00fccher der deutschen Geschichte 15. 1879; repr., Berlin: men. Duncker und Humblot, 1975. Louis departed for the Seventh Crusade in 1248, leav- Crone, Marie-Luise. Untersuchungen zur Reichskirchenpolitik ing his mother as regent; his wife accompanied him on Lothars III. (1125\u20131137) zwischen reichskirchlicher Tradition the expedition. After wintering in Cyprus, he began the und Reformkurie. Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 1982. invasion of Egypt in May 1249. The crusaders captured the coastal city of Damietta, and then, after a consider- Wadle, Elmar. Reichsgut und K\u00f6nigsherrschaft unter Lothar III. able respite, they began the invasion of the Egyptian in- (1125\u20131137): Ein Beitrag zur Verfassungsgeschichte des 12. terior late in the year, continuing into the early months of Jahrhunderts. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1969. 1250. Daily running up against fiercer opposition, they were decisively defeated in April at Al-Mansura; Louis Brian A. Pavlac and the remnants of his army were captured. After dif- ficult negotiations, the king and his men were ransomed, LOUIS IX (1214\u20131270) and many, including the king\u2019s two surviving brothers, Alphonse of Poitiers and Charles of Anjou, took ship for King of France and saint. The son of Louis VIII, Louis Europe. The king and a small group of crusaders, spent IX came to the throne as a child in 1226. He spent his the next several years in the Christian states of the Holy early years as king under the tutelage of his mother, Land helping to rebuild fortifications and to formulate Blanche of Castile. Many northern barons resented effective strategies against the enemy. the assignment of the regency to a woman, let alone a foreigner. Others resented the growing authoritarianism The queen-mother died in November 1252. Although of the crown during the preceding fifty years, the reigns he learned of her death in the spring of 1253, it was not of Philip II Augustus and Louis VIII. Many baronial until a year later that Louis was persuaded by the steady families in the west nursed grievances from the period stream of information that reached him from France of the conquest of the Plantagen\u00eat fiefs in the early years that conditions there necessitated his return. Landing at of the century. And in the south, local notables remained Hy\u00e8res, not far from Marseille, in July 1254, he began unreconciled to the French regime established in the immediately to transform the governance of his realm. wake of the Albigensian Crusade. These resentments Convinced that his failure on crusade was the result of periodically broke into rebellion: the late 1220s and his own sinfulness, and translating this conviction into early 1230s saw the crown confronting shifting alliances a decision to live up to his notion of the ideal Christian of northern barons (including the count of Brittany, ruler, he set about restraining the excesses of the Inqui- Pierre Mauclerc) in defense of aristocratic interests. In sition, reintroducing the enqu\u00eateurs, reforming the ad- the opening years of the 1240s, nobles and townsmen ministration of the city of Paris, and, most far-reaching, in the southwest and Languedoc banded together with undertaking a thorough overhaul of royal administrators the support of the Plantagen\u00eat king of England to undo in the provinces. Louis ceaselessly traversed the realm the conquests of the previous half-century. The crown to hear petitions and do justice personally. Traditional defeated all these movements. The credit for the early institutions of rule, like Parlement, were improved in successes goes largely to Blanche of Castile, but gradu- their organization and were leavened by his commitment ally in the 1230s her son became the effective ruler of to equity. He worked hard, too, to execute a severely re- the kingdom. strictive policy toward the Jews that was in part intended to encourage them to convert. Married in 1234 to Marguerite of Provence, who came to dislike his mother, Louis remained devoted to In the late 1260s, Louis committed himself to another Blanche and responsive to her political advice. Only in crusade. After considerable preparations, he departed in one matter is there evidence of political disagreement 1270. His wife remained in France. Following a brief between mother and son: Louis\u2019s decision in late 1244 stopover in Sardinia, the army, perhaps 5,000\u201310,000 to take the crusader\u2019s vow. Despite Blanche\u2019s objec- strong, launched its attack on Tunis. Before the city tions, Louis fulfilled the vow after almost four years of could be taken\u2014and in the event it never was\u2014the king preparation that included commissioning enqu\u00eateurs, died (August 25,1270). He was succeeded by his son, or special investigators, to identify the perpetrators of Philip III. As his bones were being transported to their injustices in his government. In addition to the good- final rest at Saint-Denis, miracles began to be reported. will that these investigations produced, the information A few years later, the canonization process began in allowed Louis to improve the machinery of government earnest. In 1297, the former king was raised to the by retiring or reassigning certain of his administrators. catalogue of saints as St. Louis Confessor. At the same time, he worked hard to encourage national and international support for his venture and to build See also Blanche of Castile; Joinville, Jean de; a port, Aigues-Mortes, in the south of France for the Philip II Augustus 421","LOUIS IX Louis saw himself as emperor of the Christian people, not of various ethnic groups. His reforms and concept Further Reading of empire owed nothing to papal guidance or initiative. The historic Pactum Hludowicianum agreement of 817 Jordan, William C. Louis IX and the Challenge of the Crusade: for the first time outlined specifically the nature of the A Study in Rulership. Princeton: Princeton University Press, papal-imperial relationship, a relationship that Louis 1979. dominated. Elsewhere he referred to the pope as his helper (adiutor) in caring for God\u2019s people. Richard, Jean. Saint Louis: Crusader King of France, trans. by Jean Birrell. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Louis was equally forceful in the political realm. 1992. When his nephew, King Bernard of Italy, challenged his authority in 817 he acted swiftly to quash the rebellion, Siv\u00e9ry, G\u00e9rard. Saint Louis et son si\u00e8cle. Paris: Tallandier, blinding Bernard and exiling the conspirators. (When 1983. Bernard died of his injuries, Louis demonstrated the depth of his commitment to Christian kingship by per- William Chester Jordan forming public penance.) To preempt further dynastic challenges, he had his half-brothers Drogo, Hugo, and LOUIS THE PIOUS Theodoric tonsured and placed in monasteries. After the (April 16, 778\u2013June 20, 840) death of Irmingard (October 3, 818), Louis married Ju- dith, daughter of Count Welf and his wife, Eigilwi, who Louis (Hludowicus) and Lothar, a twin who soon died, bore him two children, Gisela (821) and Charles (June were born on April 16, 778, in the palace of Chasseneuil 13, 823). The birth of Louis\u2019s fourth son later triggered near Poitiers to Hildegard, the wife of Charles the Great searing conflicts within the family and Carolingian so- (Charlemagne). \u201cPious,\u201d not a contemporary epithet, ciety at large. Other problems also challenged his reign was applied to Louis only at the end of the ninth century. during its second decade. Churchmen such as Bishop In 781, Charles appointed Louis king of Aquitaine, an Agobard of Lyon began to complain about rampant office he would grow into and hold for the next thirty- corruption in Carolingian society, including exploita- three years. In 794, sixteen-year-old Louis, already the tion of church lands and oppression of the poor by the father of two children by concubines, married Irmingard warrior class. With the expansion of Carolingian hege- (d. 818), the daughter of Count Ingram. The royal couple mony at an end, powerful nobles who little understood produced five children within the decade. the ideals of Louis\u2019s empire ransacked the Christian people and churches for material gain. The many groups Louis, as Charles\u2019s only surviving legitimate son, was ranged along the empire\u2019s extensive borders required crowned co-emperor at Aachen on September 11, 813. continual attention. In the southeast, the Slovenians The implications of the imperial title Charles received proved troublesome, while in the northeast Louis was in 800 remained ambiguous during his last years. The able to effectively manage the Danish threat, which was increasing involvement of churchmen in the adminis- defused when the Danish king Harald was baptized and tration of his realm suggests that Charles\u2019s concept of adopted by Louis in 826. In the west, Louis campaigned empire embraced religious as well as political leader- personally in Brittany where he established nominal ship. A capitulary from this period wonders, \u201cAre we authority. In Gascony and the Pyrenees borderlands indeed Christians?\u201d One of Louis\u2019s great tasks after his chronic instability reigned, partly because counts Hugo father\u2019s death in January, 814, was to continue to define and Matfrid failed to support Louis\u2019s military efforts, a a Christian empire. Under Louis, Aachen became a dereliction for which the emperor stripped them of their beehive of activity. Charles had issued twenty diplomas positions. Count Bernard of Barcelona was much more during his last thirteen years; Louis nearly doubled that effective and for his efforts was appointed in 829 as the in his first year as emperor. Louis regarded his empire emperor\u2019s chamberlain, an office that brought him into as a divine gift for whose welfare and improvement he intimate contact with the imperial family. Judith saw was chiefly responsible. Much of his early legislation Bernard as a protector while Louis regarded him as the focused on monastic and ecclesiastical reform. With the second man in the empire. Louis\u2019s forceful handling help of Benedict of Aniane, a monk who had joined his of counts Hugo and Matfrid and the empowerment of inner circle back in Aquitaine and whom he installed at Bernard and Judith combined with the fear that any Inden nearby Aachen, Louis crafted a vision of empire provision made for the young Charles would come at the in which religion, society, and politics coalesced. Con- expense of his half-brothers provoked a palace revolt in cern for the unity of the Christian people animated the 830. Pippin and the younger Louis, aided by Hugo and Ordinatio imperii of 817, his attempt to establish the Matfrid, sought to \u201cfree\u201d the emperor from the tyrant imperial succession in a manner that would preserve Bernard and the Jezebel Judith, but Louis\u2019s supporters, the integrity of the empire. Lothar (b. 795) became co-emperor with Louis while his other sons, Pippin (b. 797) and Louis theYounger (b. 806), were assigned sub- ordinate roles. In placing the unity of the empire before division among his heirs, Louis proposed a transpersonal vision of empire that emulated the unity of the church. 422","sowing discord among his older sons, restored him to LOUIS XI authority in October, 830. Although abortive, the coup claimed a victim when the vision of empire outlined in Bitter civil war broke out among his sons, resulting in the 817 Ordinatio imperii was annulled. The new Divisio 843 in the formal division of the empire recorded in the regnum of 831 restored traditional Frankish practice Treaty of Verdun. when it partitioned the empire into four approximately equal kingdoms on Louis\u2019s death. The new status quo, See also Charlemagne; Judith, Empress; Lothair I however, was only temporary. Adherents of a unified empire agitated against the Divisio, while conflict among Further Reading the brothers continued and was exacerbated when enter- prising nobles took sides. On June 30, 833, Louis met Boshof, Egon. Ludwig der Fromme. Darmstadt: Primus, 1996. with Lothar near Colmar in Alsace to compose their De Jong, Mayke. \u201cPower and Humility in Carolingian Society: differences, but instead the emperor found himself on the \u201cField of Lies\u201d facing a coalition of his older sons, their The Public Penance of Louis the Pious.\u201d Early Medieval supporters, Pope Gregory IV, and several leading clergy, Europe 1 (1992): 29\u201352. who took him and Judith into custody. Judith was sent Godman, Peter, and Roger Collins, eds. Charlemagne\u2019s Heir: to a monastery in Italy while Louis was confined to the New Perspectives on the Reign of Louis the Pious. Oxford: monastery of Saint-Medard in Soissons. Leading clerics, Clarendon Press, 1992. including Agobard of Lyon and Ebbo of Reims, argued that Louis failed as a king and must abdicate the throne. John J. Contreni In a humiliating ceremony, he acknowledged his crimes, removed his imperial regalia, and was condemned to LOUIS XI (1423\u20131483) perpetual penance. This mistreatment of a father by his sons, another round of conflict among the older broth- The eldest son of Charles VII, Louis XI was raised in ers and their supporters, and increasing violence soon isolation from his father, and their subsequent animosity swung sympathy and support back to Louis who, from made Louis XI a political force long before he ascended his confinement, was orchestrating his return. Freed the throne. Charged with the defense of Languedoc in from captivity, his weapons, his wife, and his youngest 1439, he fell under the influence of rebellious nobles and son were restored to him. joined the Praguerie. He was soon forgiven, but the con- tinuing animosity between Louis and Charles seems to Emperor once again, Louis continued to rule ener- have increased after the death of Louis\u2019s wife, Margaret getically, bestowing key appointments on his supporters of Scotland, in 1445 and Louis retired to his apanage of and punishing those such as Agobard and Ebbo who the Dauphin\u00e9 in 1447. There he began an apprenticeship had betrayed him. He continued successfully to provide for the throne by reforming provincial government. A for Charles against the resistance of the younger Louis. disobedient remarriage to Charlotte of Savoy completed When Pippin died in 838, Louis ignored the complaints the family breach, and Louis fled the realm in 1456. of Pippin\u2019s son and granted the kingdom of Aquitaine to Charles. Lothar dedicated himself to his Italian lands and Louis began his reign in 1461 by ambitiously seeking never challenged his father again. Louis rebuilt his own to expand his authority both abroad, through the invasion political network by holding frequent assemblies after of Catalonia, and at home, with his vengeful dismissal 835 and by presiding at ceremonial and ritual activities, of his father\u2019s advisers and foolish rejection of previous especially hunting, his favorite pastime. He continued allies. He barely survived the subsequent Guerre du Bien to see to the collection of public revenue and directed Publique and the indecisive Battle of Montlh\u00e9ry in July successful military campaigns. In 839, an embassy from 1465, but the rest of the reign was marked by a remark- the Byzantine Empire arrived to congratulate him for able ability to learn from his mistakes. Henceforth, his stout defense of Christendom. Louis handled his domestic adversaries by isolating and destroying each in turn and sought international success On June 20, 840, Louis died on Petersaue, an island through diplomacy rather than war. in the Rhine near his palace at Ingelehim. His last words reportedly were Hutz, hutz (German for \u201cAway, away\u201d), By judicious gifts and appointments, Louis rec- shouted as his mourners imagined to circling evil spirits. onciled himself to his father\u2019s advisers, Dunois and He was laid to rest in the monastery of Saint-Arnulf Chabannes and such dangerous peers as the duke of of Metz beside his mother and his sisters, Rotrud and Bourbon. He isolated his brother Charles of France by Hilde-gard. Bishop Drogo, his half-brother, chose a late the award of the apanage of Guyenne. Louis supported antique sarcophagus for him that depicted the flight of first the Lancastrians and then the Yorkists to prevent the Israelites across the Red Sea before the pursuing English intervention in France, subsidized Swiss re- Egyptians. The motif symbolized baptism and triumph. sistance to Burgundy, and supported Angevin ventures in Italy to secure the southwest. The birth of a son in 1470 (the future Charles VIII), the death of his brother Charles in 1472, the destruction of remaining Armag- nac strongholds in 1473, the execution of the count of Saint-Pol in 1475\u2014all these combined to secure Louis\u2019s domestic authority. 423","LOUIS XI crying, ecstasies, healing with spittle and the laying on of hands, prophecy, and raptures. Thereafter, Louis concentrated on Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who, at P\u00e9ronne in 1468, had humili- Illiterate and unable to speak French, Luitgard none- ated him by extorting a guarantee of the independence theless contributed powerful images to the growing of Flanders. Charles\u2019s death in 1477 was Louis\u2019s great- movement of christocentric mysticism: Christ urges her est stroke of good fortune. The remaining years of the repeatedly to drink directly from his bleeding wound reign were devoted to the acquisition of Burgundian and receives her heart in his own. Luitgard\u2019s vita offers territories. In these same years, Louis\u2019s annexation of remarkable insight into the flourishing communities Anjou and inheritance of Maine and Provence virtually of spiritual women and their mutual influence on each completed the territorial unification of modern France other. Marie d\u2019Oignies, for example, is present at her before his death. deathbed and predicts Luitgard\u2019s miraculous activities from beyond the grave. A Cistercian nun, Sybille de Louis\u2019s successes came as a fulfillment of his pre- Gages, composes a poem in her honor; Luitgard\u2019s spirit decessors\u2019 policies. Ugly and socially isolated from his frequently appears to other nuns in visions. peers, Louis\u2019s rejection of medieval courtly behavior, dress, and ritual later endeared him to 19th-century ro- See also Marie d\u2019Oignies mantics but in his own day alienated many whose help he needed. Louis was not some sort of \u201cNew Monarch\u201d but Further Reading rather an idiosyncratic medieval king whose breaches with convention often proved self-defeating and whose Thomas de Cantimpr\u00e9. Vita Lutgardis, ed. Pinius. Acta Sanctorum greatest successes came through the traditional means (1867) 3.187\u2013209. of diplomacy and warfare made possible by the military and fiscal reforms of his less colorful father. \u2014\u2014. The Life of Lutgard of Ayw\u00ed\u00e8res, trans. Margot H. King. Saskatoon: Peregrina, 1987. See also Charles VII Deboutte, A. \u201cS. Lutgarde et sa spiritualit\u00e9.\u201d Collectanea cister- Further Reading ciensa 44 (1982): 73\u201387. Bittmann, Karl. Ludwig XI. und Karl der Kuhne: Die Memoiren Dinzelbacher, Peter. \u201cDas Christusbild der heiligen Luitgard des Phillipe des Commynes als historische Quelle. G\u00f6ttingen: von Tongeren im Rahmen der Passionsmystik und Bildkunst Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1964. des 12. und 13. Jahrhunderts.\u201d Ons geestelijk erf 56 (1982): 217\u201377. Champion, Pierre. Louis XI. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1929. Kendall, Paul M. Louis XI: The Universal Spider. New York: Ulrike Wiethaus Norton, 1970. LUNA, \u00c1LVARO DE (1388\u20131453) Lewis, Peter S. Later Medieval France: The Polity. New York: Don \u00c1lvaro, as he is commonly referred to, was the St. Martin, 1968. illegitimate son of a minor noble of Arag\u00f3nese origin Tyrell, Joseph M. Louis XI. Boston: Twayne, 1980. by the same name. He was born in Castile at Ca\u00f1ete in 1388, and his mother was from that village. When his Paul D. Solon father died in 1395, \u00c1lvaro was taken in by his uncle, Juan Mart\u00ednez de Luna. In 1408 \u00c1lvaro de Luna was LUITGARD OF AYWI\u00c8RES sent to court to further his education. There he was (Luitgard of Tongres; 1182\u20131246) known for his elegance and wit, and quickly became the friend, companion, and favorite of Prince Juan, Born into a wealthy family, Luitgard entered the mon- the considerably younger boy who had inherited the astery of Sainte-Catherine at Saint-Trond at the age of throne during infancy and would become Juan II, king twelve. Twelve years later, she was elected prioress but of Castile. From their earliest days together, Luna and chose instead to leave for the Cistercian monastery at the king were constant companions and confidantes. Aywi\u00e8res. After a long life of exemplary holiness, Lui- Fearing the worst of the association, the young prince\u2019s tgard died among her fellow sisters on July 16, 1246. mother, the Queen Regent Catalina de Lancaster, ar- She eventually became the patron saint of Flanders. ranged to have Luna removed from court in 1415. Juan Several vitae of Luitgard exist, the most notable being was miserable without his friend\u2019s company, and Luna composed by Thomas de Cantimpr\u00e9 three years after was quickly recalled. By 1418, when Catalina had her death. Luitgard\u2019s life was filled with an extravagant died, Luna and the king\u2019s relationship had grown to array of visions and miracles. The visions include highly the point that it inspired both public gossip and private abstract apparitions of light, concrete personal admo- envy among many of the nobles, who sought influence nitions by Christ and by angelic messengers, political to augment their power at the expense of the crown. (In and ecclesiastical messages (e.g., asking her to fast for later years the king would be confronted by the nobles seven years because of the Albigensians), and contacts with rumors of their homosexual relationship). Luna, with souls in Purgatory. Among her miracles are such physical phenomena as levitation, profuse sweating and 424","however, remained confident of the king\u2019s support and LYDGATE, JOHN relied heavily on the backing of others who associated the crown\u2019s interests with their-own, namely the lower imagination for the next several centuries as an example and middle layers of society. Luna brilliantly exploited of the whims of Fortune, inspiring many literary works the concerns and aspirations of the non-noble sectors of that commemorated it. He is buried in the cathedral at society and, at the same time, sought to increase his own Toledo. Juan II died the year after Luna\u2019s execution, influence as well as centralize the power of the monar- overcome by personal grief and remorse. chy. As a result, he undermined the power of the cortes (parliament) and the local municipalities, as he gathered \u00c1lvaro de Luna\u2019s diplomatic and military skills rank more and more power for the crown and for himself. him among the most influential Iberian political leaders The king, who remained largely disinterested in affairs of the fifteenth century. Committed to a powerful mon- of state, became a virtual pawn of the ambitious Luna. archy and centralized authority based on broad popular support, his vision was only betrayed by an indecisive In 1420 Luna, who had been elevated to count and king and his own venality. been given large estates, rescued the king from the In- fantes de Arag\u00f3n, who had seized the monarch and taken See also Alfonso V, King of Arag\u00f3n, him to Talavera de la Reina. The Infantes, brothers of Al- The Magnanimous fonso V of Arag\u00f3n, were closely allied with the Castilian nobles who sought to curb the power of the monarchy Further Reading in the kingdom. Both had regal ambitions themselves and looked to protect their family\u2019s enormous interests Round, N. G. The Greatest Man Uncrowned: A Study of the Fall in Castile. Luna was made the constable of Castile in of Don Alvaro de Luna. London, 1986. 1423, a step which greatly increased his power and influ- ence by making them official. The move provoked the E. Michael Gerli nobles and the Infantes to multiply their efforts against him, which met with success in 1427, when they and the LYDGATE, JOHN (ca. 1370\u20131449) other nobles forced the king to exile Luna. Neither the king nor the nobles, however, were capable of govern- The most prolific versifier of the 15th century. Lydgate ing Castile without Luna, whose talents had ensured his was probably born in the village of Lydgate in Suffolk indispensability. As a result, he was quickly recalled and and apparently educated at the Benedictine monastery fully reinstated. The Castilian victory in the war against at Bury St. Edmunds, at which he was professed at the Arag\u00f3n (1429) not only restored but amplified Luna\u2019s age of fifteen. He later studied at Oxford, probably at power and influence. Gloucester Hall. He was ordained priest in the Bene- dictine order in 1397. In 1406 Prince Henry supported Luna seemed unstoppable. At one point, the mastery his return to study at Oxford. It was possibly while at of the military Order of Santiago was conferred upon Oxford that he wrote his translation of Aesop\u2019s Fables. him after it had been stripped from the Infante Enrique, His subsequent career suggests that he enjoyed Henry heir to the throne. With this new power in hand, Luna V\u2019s patronage. In 1423, after Henry\u2019s death, Lydgate began to campaign against the Muslim south and led became prior of Hatfield Broadoak in Essex. But from the Castilians to an important victory at the battle of La 1426 to 1429 he was in Paris as part of the entourage Higueruela in 1431. The nobles, presided over by the of John duke of Bedford, regent of France. By 1433 he Manrique and Enr\u00edquez clans, continued to resist Luna had returned to Bury. Most of his later works seem to and plot against him at court. Although their efforts led have been written there. He received a royal annuity in to a second exile in 1438, by 1445 Luna had been re- 1439 and died ten years later. stored to favor and had handed the nobles a resounding defeat at the battle of Olmedo. Only King Juan\u2019s second Lydgate\u2019s earliest major work was probably his Troy wife, Isabel of Portugal, managed to rid the kingdom of Book, a translation of Guido delle Colonne\u2019s Historia de- Luna. With the collaboration of the nobles, especially struccionis Troiae (30,117 lines in couplets), which was the conde de Haro and the marqu\u00e9s de Santillana, she begun at the behest of Henry V in 1412 and completed in persuaded the king to arrest Luna and condemn him to 1420. Its composition appears to have been interrupted death. He was taken prisoner at Easter, 1453, and publi- by the writing of The Life of Our Lady, ca. 1415\u201316 cally beheaded at Valladolid on 22 June of that year. (5,932 lines, mostly in rime royal stanzas), written, he says, at Henry\u2019s \u201cexcitacioun.\u201d The Siege of Thebes, a As he went to his death, Luna, whose bravery was history of the Theban legend, apparently based on a legendary, calmly requested that his executioner not tie French source, was probably composed ca. 1420\u201321, his hands with the customary rope but with the silk cord as a continuation of Chaucer\u2019s Canterbury Tales. While he had brought for that purpose. Luna\u2019s spectacular rise in France in the late 1420s Lydgate probably wrote his and dramatic fall would continue to haunt the Castilian translation of Deguileville\u2019s Pilgrimage of the Life of Man (24,832 lines in couplets) for Thomas Montacute, earl of Salisbury. Some of his shorter poems, including the Danse Machabre, also date from this time. 425","LYDGATE, JOHN (CA. 1370\u20131449) the creation and dissemination of the Chaucer tradition, particularly through his own popularizing of Chaucerian After his return to England in 1429 Lydgate wrote a style and subjects. number of celebratory verses for Henry VI\u2019s coronation. His Lives of Sts. Edmund and Fremund (3,508 lines Lydgate\u2019s Chaucerian imitation is related to the most in rime royal) was presented to the king in the 1430s, distinctive tendency in his art, its rhetorical amplifica- probably after the king\u2019s visit to Bury St. Edmunds in tion. His instinct was to elaborate his materials, often on 1433\u201334. For the king\u2019s brother, Humphrey, duke of a massive scale. The most striking\u2014or notorious\u2014ex- Gloucester, Lydgate wrote his longest work, The Fall of ample of this tendency is the opening sentence of his Princes (36,365 lines in rime royal), between ca. 1431 Siege of Thebes, which imitates the opening sentence of and 1438. It is a rendering of Laurent de Premierfait\u2019s Chaucer\u2019s General Prologue, Lydgate\u2019s sentence extends French prose translation of Boccaccio\u2019s De casibus Chaucer\u2019s from eighteen to 65 lines. Indeed much of virorum illustrium. His last major works seem to have Lydgate\u2019s amplification comes from a natural tendency been his Lives of Sts. Albon and Amphibel (4,724 lines nurtured by a careful reading of Chaucer, through which in rime royal), commissioned in 1439 by John Wheth- poetic hints of his \u201cmaster\u201d could be vastly expanded. amstede, abbot of St. Albans, and a rime royal transla- Thus, out of suggestions in Chaucer\u2019s language, he tion of the Pseudo-Aristotelian Secreta secretorum, created a distinctive aureate diction, a Latin-derived, left incomplete on his death and finished by Benedict polysyllabic language that often characterizes his \u201chigh Burgh. Other substantial poems attributed to Lydgate style,\u201d particularly in his religious verse. At its least suc- include a lengthy allegory, Reason and Sensuality (7,042 cessful, in conjunction with elaboration of allusion and lines in couplets), and many shorter poems of doubtful syntax, it could lead to the obscurity that has earned him canonicity. the condemnation of many modern critics. In addition to these long poems there are numerous Lydgate\u2019s meter systematizes Chaucer\u2019s versification shorter ones on a variety of subjects. These include a through a regular use of five types of iambic pentameter popular dream vision, The Temple of Glass, and short line. One particularly striking feature of this system- verse narratives, such as his Debate of the Horse Sheep atization is the frequent use of the \u201cheadless\u201d line (one and Goose and The Churl and the Bird, several mum- that lacks an initial stressed syllable). Lydgate\u2019s own mings, and a number of devotional lyrics. But the variety development of Chaucer\u2019s metrics was the \u201cbroken- of Lydgate\u2019s poetic output resists concise summary: it backed\u201d line, in which stressed syllables clash across ranges from his translation of Aesop to a treatise for the caesura. laundresses and a dietary (instructions on healthy diet and behavior). By the most capacious estimates it runs It was probably through his amplification and sys- to about 150,000 lines of verse. His sole prose work, The tematization of Chaucer\u2019s art that Lydgate gained his Serpent of Division, is a brief history of Rome. considerable reputation in the 15th and 16th centuries. Allusions in that period acclaim him as part of a great This range of subject matter is reflected in the range triumvirate of ME poets, together with Chaucer and of his patrons, which extended from royalty and nobil- Gower. And in simple quantitative terms, in numbers of ity through a broad spectrum of English society, both surviving manuscripts, Lydgate was the most popular of religious and lay, male and female, individual and all ME poets. His Fall of Princes survives in complete institutional. He was at the call of those who wished or selected forms in over 80 manuscripts, his Life of Our him to entertain, instruct, admonish, and propagandize Lady in nearly 50, The Siege of Thebes in 30. Among on their behalf. Lydgate\u2019s shorter poems both his Verses on the Kings of England and his Dietary exist in over 50 copies. In Lydgate stands crucially between Chaucer and addition many of his works were issued by the early the later evolution of English poetry. He wrote in the printers, Caxton, Pynson, and de Worde, often more generation immediately after Chaucer\u2019s death and ac- than once. knowledges Chaucer as his \u201cmaster\u201d in frequent lavish tributes. A number of his works are self-consciously This massive dissemination of Lydgate\u2019s works conceived within a tradition of Chaucer\u2019s works that is during the later Middle Ages led to his wide-ranging reflected in imitation at conceptual, stylistic, and verbal influence on later writers and forms. The Fall of Princes levels. Thus his Troy Book sets itself in relation to the shaped literary conceptions of tragedy in the early subject matter of Troilus and Criseyde; The Siege of Renaissance. His mummings are important texts in the Thebes contains an imitation of the beginning of the evolution of English drama. And the works of (among General Prologue and extensive verbal borrowings from others) Dunbar, Henryson, Douglas, Hawes, and Skel- the Knight\u2019s Tale; The Complaint of the Black Knight ton, as well as many lesser figures, show the influence and The Temple of Glass imitate Chaucer\u2019s dream vi- of his work in their writings, an influence that extended sions, The Book of the Duchess and The House of Fame, into the 17th century. respectively. Lydgate was to play an important role in 426","See also Boccaccio, Giovanni; Chaucer, Geoffrey; LYDGATE, JOHN (CA. 1370\u20131449) Digulleville, Guillaume de; Gower, John; Henry V Humphrey Milford, 1934. Further Reading Norton-Smith, John, ed. John Lydgate: Poems. Oxford: Clar- Primary Sources endon, 1966. Reinecke, George F., ed. Saint Albon and Saint Amphibalus. Bergen, Henry, ed. Lydgate\u2019s Troy Book. 4 vols. EETS e.s. 97, 103, 106, 126. London: Humphrey Milford, 1906\u201335. NewYork: Garland, 1985. Steele, Robert, ed. Lydgate and Burgh\u2019s Secrees of Old Philisof- Bergen, Henry, ed. Lydgate\u2019s Fall of Princes. 4 vols. EETS e.s. 121\u201324. London: Humphrey Milford, 1924\u201327. fres. EETS e.s. 66. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Tr\u00fcbner, 1894. Erdmann, Axel, and Eilert Ekwall, eds. Lydgate\u2019s Siege of Thebes, 2 vols. EETS e.s. 108, 125. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Secondary Sources Tr\u00fcbner, 1911\u201330. New CBEL 1:639\u201346, 740. Furnivall, Frederick J., and Katherine B. Locock, eds. The Manual 6:1809\u20131920, 2071\u20132175. Pilgrimage of the Life of Man. 3 vols. EETS e.s. 77, 83, 92. Edwards, A.S.G. \u201cLydgate Scholarship: Progress and Prospects.\u201d London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Tr\u00fcbner, 1899\u20131904. In Fifteenth Century Studies: Recent Essays, ed. Robert F. Lauritis, Joseph A., R.A. Klinefelter, and V.F. Gallagher, eds. A Yeager. Hamden: Archon, 1984, pp. 29\u201347. Critical Edition of John Lydgate\u2019s Life of Our Lady. Pitts- Pearsall, Derek. John Lydgate. London: Routledge & Kegan burgh: Duquesne University, 1961. Paul, 1970. Schirmer, Walter F. John Lydgate: A Study in the Culture of the MacCracken, Henry Noble, ed. The Minor Poems of John Lyd- XVth Century. Trans. Ann E. Keep. Berkeley: University of gate. 2 vols. EETS e.s. 107, o.s. 192. London: Kegan Paul, California Press, 1961. Trench, Tr\u00fcbner, 1911. A.S.G. Edwards 427","","M MACHAUT, GUILLAUME DE the Prise, and public records do not speak of him again until his death in April 1377. (ca. 1300\u20131377) Most of Machaut\u2019s poetic and musical production The greatest French poet and composer of the 14th cen- can be dated to the period after he settled at Reims in tury. Machaut\u2019s narrative dits set a style in poetry that the late 1330s until ca. 1370. He composed some 420 would predominate in France and England through the lyric poems, most in the formes fixes of chant royal 15th century; his lyrics, many set to music, established (eight extant), ballade (239), rondeau (seventy-seven), and popularized the formes fixes; his Messe de Nostre virelai (forty), and lai (twenty-three). He also wrote Dame is the earliest surviving polyphonic setting of all twenty-three motets, nine complaintes, eight long and movements of the Mass Ordinary by one composer; four shorter dits amoureux, a poem of comfort and his strong interest in manuscript production made him counsel (Confort d\u2019ami), the Prise d\u2019Alexandrie, as well a prime force in creating an awareness of the artist as a as a Prologue that introduced his late complete-works professional figure. manuscripts. In total, Machaut produced some 60,000 lines of verse. He set about 140 of his lyrics to music, Born near Reims, Machaut probably received a uni- providing polyphonic settings of forty ballades, twenty- versity education in Paris. After his studies, he served one rondeaux, four lais, one virelai, and twenty-three from ca. 1323 to the late 1330s as personal secretary motets and monophonic settings for one ballade, sixteen and clerk to Jean l\u2019Aveugle of Luxembourg, king of lais, thirty virelais, one complainte, one chant royal, and Bohemia. In 1333, Jean procured a canonry at Reims for two miscellaneous lyrics. The manuscripts also include Machaut, whose name appears regularly in the records music for his famous Messe de Nostre Dame and a text- of Reims after 1340. With Jean\u2019s death in 1346 at the less three-voice hocket. Battle of Cr\u00e9cy, Machaut did not lack for patrons. He composed his Remede de Fortune for Jean\u2019s daughter, Machaut\u2019s earliest narrative poem, the Dit du vergier Bonne of Luxembourg, who was also the mother of two (late 1330s; 1,293 lines), is an allegorical dream vision of his most important patrons, Charles, duke of Norman- in the tradition of the Roman de la Rose. It is a first- dy (later Charles V), and John, duke of Berry. Machaut person account of an encounter with the God of Love, praises Charles in his Voir dit (1363\u201365) and probably who together with six youths and six maidens appears composed his last major poem, the verse chronicle Prise to the narrator in a grove. In three lengthy speeches, the d\u2019Alexandrie (ca. 1369\u201371), at his instigation. Machaut god discourses on love and promises to help the narrator dedicated his Fonteinne amoureuse to the duke of Berry, in his own amours, if he proves worthy. and one of the most elaborate manuscripts of Machaut\u2019s collected works bears the duke\u2019s signature. In the early The Jugement du roy de Behaigne (late 1330s; 2,079 1350s, Machaut established an important association lines) narrates a love debate and its resolution by Jean with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, whose family l\u2019Aveugle. The allusions to this poem and the large num- had hereditary connections with Champagne and who ber of extant manuscripts (twenty) are evidence that this had married a daughter of Bonne and King John II. was the most popular of Machaut\u2019s works. The question Although he apparently continued to cultivate royal debated is who suffers more, the knight whose lady has patrons, no major works by Machaut are known after taken a new lover or the lady whose beloved has died. 429","MACHAUT, GUILLAUME DE patron, Duke John of Berry. One night, the Narrator overhears a Lover bemoaning the fact he must go into Jean decides in favor of the knight, then entertains both exile (in actuality, John went to England in 1360 as a parties at his castle of Durbuy for a week. Elements of hostage after the Treaty of Br\u00e9tigny) and be separated verisimilitude and the participation of a historical king from his Lady. The next day in a garden, the Narrator bring a new air of realism to the dit amoureux. and the Lover fall asleep near a fountain and are visited by Venus, who brings the Lady to comfort her suitor Remede de Fortune (ca. 1340; 4,300 lines) is arguably and assure him of her fidelity. The two men awaken and the best and most influential French love poem of the return to the castle; several days later, the Lover crosses 14th century. The Lover\/Narrator tells of his long but the sea, but with joy in his heart. silent love service to his lady. To pass time, he writes poems in the formes fixes about his love and circulates In his last and lengthiest dit amoureux, the Voir dit them anonymously, until one day a lai comes into his (1363\u201365; 9,009 lines with intercalated prose letters), lady\u2019s hands. When she asks him who had written it, Machaut gives a pseudoautobiographical account of he is unable to speak and retreats in despondency to the an affair with a young admirer, Toute-Belle. A sort of Park of Hesdin, where he delivers a lengthy complainte epistolary novel in verse, the work is more likely a fic- against Love and Fortune. In response, Lady Hope tion than an account of a real affair, though many early appears and tells him that both Fortune and Love had scholars sought to see in it a roman \u00e0 clef. It is notable treated him as well as could be expected. Encouraged for its verisimilitude and for its apparently parodic by Hope, the Lover finally goes to his Lady\u2019s chateau depiction of fin\u2019amors. and declares his love. Although they exchange rings, the Lady, prompted by the need for discretion and secrecy in The shorter dits include the Dit de la Marguerite, the love, later ignores him, and the poem ends on an ambigu- Dit de la Fleur de Lis et de la Marguerite, the Dit de la ous note. Remede de Fortune is an important didactic Harpe, and the Dit de la Rose. poem, serving as a manual for courtiers and providing a poetic and musical model for each of the formes fixes. In addition to his dits amoureux, Machaut composed Among the last and best of a line of French love poems two other long poems: Confort d\u2019ami (1356\u201357; 4,004 that integrated lyrics with narrative, it also provided a lines) and Prise d\u2019Alexandrie (1369\u201371; 8,886 lines model for the nonmusical narratives of such poets as and three prose letters). The Confort, incorporating Froissart, Granson, and especially Chaucer. many exempla, was written to console Charles the Bad, who had been taken prisoner by John II in April 1356. The Dit du lyon (2,204 lines), with the action set on The Prise is a verse account of the career of Pierre de April 2, 1342, is sometimes thought to be the original of Lusignan, king of Cyprus, which culminated with the Chaucer\u2019s lost Book of the Lion. The narrator comes onto capture of Alexandria in 1365. an island, where he encounters a friendly lion; the lion leads him through a wasteland into a grove, where they Machaut\u2019s musical works fall into three genres: mo- are received by a noble lady and her retainers. Here, the tets, settings of fixed-form lyrics, and Mass. Fifteen of narrator observes the love experience of the lion, who is Machaut\u2019s motets set French texts, six set Latin texts, harassed by the persecution of hostile beasts whenever and two mix French and Latin. The earliest date we have his lady takes her gaze from him. The narrator intercedes for a work by Machaut is the Latin motet Bone pastor on behalf of the lion before returning to his manor. Guillerme\/Bone pastor qui\/Bone pastor, written for the occasion of the election of Guillaume de Trie as arch- In the Jugement du roy de Navarre (1349; 4,212 bishop of Reims in 1324. Most of the remaining motets, lines), Machaut returns to the love debate of Behaigne dated before ca. 1350, celebrate fin\u2019amors. The invec- and this time pronounces, through the person of Charles tive against Fortune in Machaut\u2019s most popular motet, the Bad, king of Navarre, in favor of the Lady. Much Qui es promesses\/Ha Fortune\/Et non est, was known more than a simple love debate, the poem is a complex to Chaucer. The last three of Machaut\u2019s motets appear commentary on the role of a poet and poetry in society. to relate to political events of the late 1350s. Formally, An important prologue evokes the Black Death. the motets use isorhythmic designs based on chant tenors and are evenly divided among bipartite designs The Dit de l\u2019alerion (1350s; 4,814 lines) is a bird with diminution and unipartite designs. Three motets allegory that presents extensive analogies between birds are based on secular tenors in virelai or rondeau form, of prey and women, between hawking and fin\u2019amors. one of which, Lasse comment oublieray\/Se j\u2019aim mon The Narrator\/Lover tells of four raptors he has acquired, loyal\/Pour quoy me bat mes maris, sets a 13th-century loved, and lost: a sparrowhawk, an alerion (a type of dance song, the complaint of a malmari\u00e9e. large eagle), an eagle, and a gerfalcon. Like the Remede, it is a didactic treatise on love; unlike that poem, it in- Machaut is unique among 14th-century composers in corporates exempla drawn from historical and literary his cultivation of the difficult lai with music. Although sources to make its points. most of the musical lais are monophonic, their great length, demanding a half-hour or more in performance, The Fonteinne amoureuse (1360\u201362; 2,848 lines) is a dream vision in which Machaut offers advice to his 430","requires an attention to formal balance and development MACROBIUS unprecedented in medieval music. \u2014\u2014. Guillaume de Machaut: Musikalische Werke, ed. The composition of polyphonic songs based on the Friedrich Ludwig. 4 vols. Leipzig: Breitkopf and H\u00e4rtel, formes fixes of ballade, rondeau, and virelai, began prob- 1926\u201354. ably in the 1340s. Several experimental early works give the impression that Machaut was decisive in the develop- \u2014\u2014. Polyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century, ed. Leo ment of this new musical style. The mature works, with Schrade. Monaco: L\u2019Oiseau-Lyre, 1956, Vols. 2\u20133: The Works a highly melismatic text carrying voice accompanied of Guillaume de Machaut. by textless tenor and contratenor, remained standard through most of the 15th century. A small core of works, \u2014\u2014. Guillaume de Machaut: Le jugement du roy de Behaigne mostly ballades, circulated widely, reaching Languedoc, and Remede de Fortune, ed. and trans. James I. Wimsatt, Wil- Italy, and the empire, especially the popular De petit po, liam W. Kibler, and Rebecca A. Baltzer. Athens: University De Fortune me day plaindre, and De toutes fleurs. The of Georgia Press, 1988. learned enumeration of mythological characters in the Voir dit double ballade Quant Theseus\/Ne quier veoir \u2014\u2014. The Judgment of the King of Navarre, ed. and trans. R. and the clear musical setting-off of the refrain are char- Barton Palmer. New York: Garland, 1988. acteristics imitated in later 14th-century ballades. \u2014\u2014. Le confort d\u2019ami, ed. and trans. R. Barton Palmer. New Machaut\u2019s Mass, formerly thought to have been com- York: Garland, 1992. posed for the coronation of Charles V at Reims on May 19, 1364, is now considered to have been composed for Avril, Fran\u00e7ois. Manuscript Painting at the Court of France: The a foundation made by Guillaume and his brother Jean Fourteenth Century. New York: Braziller, 1978. for services to commemorate their deaths. The Mass ap- pears to have been performed regularly at these services Brownlee, Kevin. Poetic Identity in Guillaume de Machaut. at the cathedral of Reims until after 1411. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984. Machaut stands at the culmination of a movement in Calin, William. A Poet at the Fountain: Essays on the Narrative French literature marked by a growing interest in the Verse of Guillaume de Machaut. Lexington: University of manuscript presentation of an author\u2019s works. Several Kentucky Press, 1974. manuscripts, prepared at various stages of Machaut\u2019s career, collect his complete works, carefully organized Cerquiglini, Jacqueline. \u201cUn engin si soutil\u201d: Guillaume de Mach- into sections by genre, most usually retaining the same aut et I\u2019\u00e9criture au XIVe si\u00e8cle. Paris: Champion, 1985. order from manuscript to manuscript, with new works added at the end of each series. In general, it appears Earp, Lawrence. Guillaume de Machaut: A Guide to Research. that each genre is arranged in chronological order. Such Forthcoming. complete-works manuscripts had an influence on later poets, such as Froissart and Christine de Pizan; the Guillaume de Machaut: po\u00e8te et compositeur. Paris: Klincksieck, transmission of musical works after Machaut, however, 1982. was confined largely to mixed anthologies. Huot, Silvia. From Song to Book: The Poetics of Writing in Old The Machaut manuscripts are often elaborately illu- French Lyric and Lyrical Narrative Poetry. Ithaca: Cornell minated, and the series of illustrations for a given nar- University Press, 1987. rative poem was in many cases doubtless determined by the author. The several artists who illustrated Machaut\u2019s Imbs, Paul. Le Voir-dit de Guillaume de Machaut: \u00e9tude litt\u00e9raire. manuscripts include figures known for their work on Paris: Klincksieck, 1991. manuscripts of kings John II and Charles V. Unfortu- nately, the original owners of these volumes, except for Leech-Wilkinson, Daniel. Machaut\u2019s Mass: An Introduction. a posthumous collection belonging to the duke of Berry, Oxford: Clarendon, 1990. have not been conclusively identified. Machabey, Armand. Guillaume de Machaut: La vie et l\u2019\u0153uvre See also Charles II the Bad; Charles V the Wise; musicale. 2 vols. Paris: Richard-Masse, 1955. Christine de Pizan Poirion, Daniel. Le po\u00e8te et le prince: l\u2019\u00e9volution du lyrisme Further Reading courtois de Guillaume de Machaut \u00e0 Charles d\u2019Orl\u00e9ans. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1965. Machaut, Guillaume de. \u0152uvres de Guillaume de Machaut, ed. Ernest Hoepffner. 3 vols. Paris: Didot, 1908\u201321. William W. Kibler\/Lawrence Earp \u2014\u2014. Guillaume de Machaut: po\u00e9sies lyriques, ed. Vladimir MACROBIUS (fl. 400-425) Chichmaref. 2 vols. Paris: Champion, 1909. The identity of Macrobius is disputed. Although not a Roman by birthplace, he lived in Rome and received a good education by the standards of his time. His two major works\u2014written for the education of his son, Eustathius\u2014were Saturnalia and Commentary on the Dream of Scipio. These had the greatest influence in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, although one or two other writings have also been attributed to Macrobius. Macrobius\u2019s thought is based on Platonic philosophy and cosmology; he also was recognized as an authority on the virtues. The Saturnalia has not survived in its entirety. All extant manuscripts derive from a single codex of the late eighth or early ninth century. Today the work is divided into seven books that constitute a symposium or banquet; that is, the Saturnalia purports to relate how a gathering of learned men celebrated in seemly fash- ion the three-day feast of the Saturnalia by discussing 431","MACROBIUS in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, whereas the Sat- urnalia came into its own in the late medieval period learned or entertaining features of Virgil\u2019s life, knowl- and the Renaissance. This is not to say, however, that edge, and poetry. Virgil is esteemed by almost every both were not widely known and used in all periods. celebrant as a master of all knowledge; his Aeneid is In Italy, Macrobius influenced Boccacio, Petrarch, and itself viewed as a kind of sacred poem deserving ad- probably Dante, among others. Moreover, the discussion miration and understanding. Various topics are chosen in Saturnalia concerning Virgil\u2019s art fit medieval ideas for discussion and debate during the gathering. On the on literary composition and interpretation, especially first day, the men take up different Roman institutions in the art of invention and rewriting of antecedent such as the Saturnalian feast itself, the calendar, and sources. Such rewriting could be original. The way religion; these subjects are followed, in the afternoon, Virgil is said to imitate and allude to his Greek and by striking sayings from antiquity and, later, topics Latin antecedents might well have influenced Dante\u2019s such as wine and pleasure (Books 1 and 2). On the rewriting of his master Virgil in the Divine Comedy. second day, they take up philosophical and astronomi- The representation of his universe might well have been cal topics and legal institutions, then commentary on influenced by cosmogonies like that in Macrobius\u2019s civilization, and finally the quality of different fruits Commentary. (Book 3). On the third and last day, there is discussion of Virgil as an artist, and especially as a rhetorician See also Boccaccio, Giovanni; Dante Alighieri; and a consummate imitator of Homer and other Greek Petrarca, Francesco and Latin antecedents; this section includes extensive quotations from, and cross-references to, Virgil\u2019s three Further Reading masterpieces: the Aeneid, Bucolics, and Georgics (Books 4, 5, and 6). The last book treats scientific and Editions and Translations medical matters. The Saturnalia therefore illustrates what was of interest to educated, civilized Romans in Macrobius. Commentary on the Dream of Scipio, trans. William Macrobius\u2019s time. Harris Stahl. Records of Civilization: Sources and Studies, 48. New York: Columbia University Press, 1952. The Commentary on the Dream of Scipio survives complete. Its two books contain extensive commentary \u2014\u2014. Commentarii in somnium Scipionis, ed. Jacob Willis. on scientific and philosophical topics suggested by Leipzig: Teubner, 1963a. Cicero\u2019s account of Scipio\u2019s dream of his elevation to the heavens after death. The most influential part of the \u2014\u2014. Saturnalia, ed. Jacob Willis. Leipzig: Teubner, 1963b. Commentary is found at the beginning. Here Macro- \u2014\u2014. I saturnali, ed. and trans. Nino Marinone. Classici Latini. bius discusses the uses of fables (narratio fabulosa) in philosophical discourse and the distinction between true Turin: Unione Tipografico-Edkrice Torinese, 1967. and false dreams. Philosophical fables are allegories in \u2014\u2014. The Saturnalia, trans. Percival Vaughan Davies. Records which the myth covers a truth about divinity, science, or morality. Among the allegories are dreams, which of Civilization: Sources and Studies, 79. NewYork: Columbia Macrobius classifies as true or false prophecies (he University Press, 1969. categorizes them according to mode). The most impor- tant are enigmatic dreams that may be true (somnium) Studies or false (insomnium), as in wish-fulfillment dreams or nightmares. The visum shows the dreamer what will Barker-Benfield, B. C., and P. K. Marshall. \u201cMacrobius.\u201d In Texts actually happen, and the oraculum has someone tell and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics, ed. L. D. him or her of future events. However, if what is seen or Reynolds. Oxford: Clarendon, 1983, pp. 222\u2013235. foretold in the dream is false, it is termed a visio. These definitions serve as an introduction to Cicero\u2019s text, De Paolis, Paolo. \u201cMacrobio 1934\u20131984.\u201d Lustrum, 28\u201329, 1986, the fictional account of a dream. The commentary that pp. 107\u2013254. follows draws its abundant philosophical and scientific information from Platonic cosmology. \u2014\u2014. \u201cAddendum.\u201d Lustrum, 30, 1988, pp. 7\u20139. Dronke, Peter. Fabula: Explorations into the Uses of Myth in The Saturnalia and the Commentary were widely disseminated during the Middle Ages, although their Medieval Platonism. Mittellateinische Studien und Texte, 9. relative influence varied, if we can judge by the dates Leiden, Cologne: Brill, 1974. and numbers of manuscripts that survive from differ- H\u00fcttig, Albrecht. Macrobius im Mittelaker: Ein Beitrag zur ent periods. Both served as encyclopedic sources in Rezeptionsgeschicbte der Commentarii in Somnium Scipi- Platonic and Neoplatonic philosophy and cosmogony. onis. Freiburger Beitr\u00e4ge zur Mittelaiterlichen Geschichte: The influence of the Commentary reached a high point Studien und Texte, 2. Frankfurt, Bern, New York, and Paris: Peter Lang, 1990. Kelly, Douglas. The Conspiracy of Allusion: Description, Rewrit- ing, and Authorship from Macrobius to Medieval Romance. Studies in Christian Thought, 20. Leiden: Brill, 1999. Maronine, Nino. \u201cMacrobio.\u201d Enciclopedia virgiliana, Vol. 3. Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italians, 1987, pp. 299\u2013304. Rabuse, Georg. \u201cMacrobio, Ambrosio Teodosio.\u201d Enciclopedia dantesca. Vol. 3. Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1984, pp. 757\u2013759. Douglas Kelly 432","MAGN\u00daS H\u00c1KONARSON MAGN\u00daS H\u00c1KONARSON (r. 1263-1280) Magn\u00fas H\u00e1konarson\u2019s first task as absolute monarch was to conclude a peace treaty with Scotland. Thus, he Magn\u00fas H\u00e1konarson son of H\u00e1kon H\u00e1konarson, ruled abandoned his father\u2019s expansive foreign policy. The Norway 1263\u20131280; he became king in 1257, and ruled negotiations with the Scottish king began in 1264, and together with his father until H\u00e1kon died in 1263. an agreement was reached two years later, the Treaty of Perth. Magn\u00fas H\u00e1konarson gave up his claim to the Magn\u00fas H\u00e1konarson and his closest advisers, the contested islands, the Hebrides and the Isle of Man, in \u201cgood men,\u201d concentrated on the domestic conditions of return for a one-time compensation of 4,000 pounds Norway. Legislative and organizational work character- sterling and 100 pounds sterling annually in perpetuity; ized Magn\u00fas H\u00e1konarson\u2019s reign, and secured him the at the same time, Norwegian control over the Orkney name lagab\u00e6tir (\u201claw-mender\u201d). During his reign, the Islands and the Shetland Islands was secured. Magn\u00fas State Council was more firmly structured than before. H\u00e1konarson preserved the contact his father had es- Furthermore, he saw to it that a staff of civil servants was tablished with neighboring countries and with Europe. educated at the royal chapel, the Apostolic Church in His relations with Sweden and Denmark were peaceful, Bergen. We are able to distinguish a group of diplomats even though he became involved in the dispute over employed in his service during his reign. the throne in Sweden in the 1270s and in inheritance claims in Denmark. He also extended legal rights of all The object of his legislation was a comprehensive German-speaking merchants in Norway, surpassing the revision of the old law books. The legal revision was a rights of native and other foreign merchants. This was continuation of the State Laws dating from the time of the first step in the development of special privileges for Magn\u00fas Erlingsson (1161\u20131184) and H\u00e1kon H\u00e1konar- the Germans in Norway, based upon their special role son (1217\u20131263). The latter had initiated the revision in the economy of the country. of the Frostu\u00feing Law. The revision of the law went through two stages. The first one included a revision of See also H\u00e1kon H\u00e1konarson the law books for Gula\u00feing in 1267, and Ei\u00f0sifa- and Borgar\u00feing in 1268. The latter consisted of the working Further Reading out of the National Law in 1274 (which also came to apply to the Faroe Islands), a Town Law in 1276, and Literature two law codes for Iceland, J\u00e1rns\u00ed\u00f0a in 1271 and J\u00f3nsb\u00f3k in 1281. An older court law was expanded and revised, Koht, Halvdan. \u201cThe Scandinavian Kingdoms Until the End of and became the Hir\u00f0skr\u00e1 (1273\u20131277). the Thirteenth Century.\u201d In The Cambridge Medieval History 6. Ed. J. R. Tanner et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University The object of this legislative work was to create Press, 1929, pp. 362\u201392. uniform laws for the entire country. The legislation increased the authority of the king with regard to the Seip, Jens Arup. S\u00e6ttargjerden i Tunsberg og kirkens jurisdiksjon. administration and execution of the laws, as well as the Oslo: Det Norske Videnskaps-akademi i Oslo, 1942. public regulation of society. At the same time, it entailed important reforms, regulation of the tax system and of Helle, Knui. \u201cTendenser i nyere norsk h\u00f8ymiddelalderforskning.\u201d the institutions for the poor. There is no actual Christian Historisk tidsskrift (Norway) 40 (1960\u201361), 337\u201370. Law in the National Law. The reason for this exclusion was a major conflict between the monarchy and the Helle, Knut. \u201cTrade and Shipping Between Norway and England Church concerning Christian legislation, dating from in the Reign of H\u00e5kon H\u00e5konsson (1217\u20131263).\u201d Sj\u00f8fartshis- the end of the 1260s. Magn\u00fas H\u00e1konarson claimed that torisk \u00e5rbok (Bergen) (1967), 7\u201333. the king and the Church should administer the Christian legislation in unison. On the basis of this claim, Chris- Helle, Knut. \u201cAnglo-Norwegian Relations in the Reign of H\u00e5kon tian legislative decisions were publicized in a statute H\u00e5konsson 1217\u201363.\u201d Mediaeval Scandinavia 1 (1968), dating from the middle of the 1260s. The revision of the 101\u201314. Gula\u00feing Law and the Ei\u00f0sifa-and Borgar\u00feing law in 1267 and 1268 included the Christian Law. During the Gunnes, Erik. \u201cKirkeligjurisdiksjon i Norge 1153\u20131277.\u201d Histo- revision of the Frostubing Law, the king was strongly risk tidsskrifi (Norway) 49 (1970), 121\u201360. opposed by the new archbishop, J\u00f3n rau\u00f0i (\u201cthe red\u201d), who independently started to make a Trondic Christian Crawford, Barbara E. \u201cThe Earls of Orkney-Caithness and Law in accordance with purely ecclesiastical principles. Their Relations with the Kings of Norway and Scotland: The conflict between the king and the archbishop was 1150\u20131470.\u201d Diss. St. Andrews University, 1971. difficult, but an agreement was reached in T\u00f8nsberg in 1277. Helle, Knut. Konge og gode menn i norsk riksstyring ca. 1150\u2013 1319. Bergern Universitetsforlaget, 1972. Crawford, Barbara E. \u201cWeland of Stiklaw: A Scottish Royal Ser- vant at the Norwegian Court.\u201d Historisk tidsskrift (Norway) 52 (1973), 329\u201339. Helle, Knut. Norge blir en stat 1130\u20131319. 2nd ed. Handbok i Norges historie, 3. Bergen: Universitetsforiaget, 1974. Lunden, K\u00e5re. Norge under Sverre\u00e6tten 1177\u20131319. Norges historie, 3. Oslo: Cappelen, 1976. Bagge, Sverre. \u201cKirkens jurisdiksjon i kristenrettssaker f\u00f8r 1277.\u201d Historisk tidsskrift (Norway) 60 (1981), 133\u201359. Helle, Knut. \u201cNorway in the High Middle Ages: Recent Views 433","MAGN\u00daS H\u00c1KONARSON Nevertheless, there were critics. First, he had not cited his sources, and although sources have been found for on the Structure of Society.\u201d Scandinavian Journal of History virtually every statement, lesser scholars had difficulty 6 (1981), 161\u201389. in accepting some of his rulings. Second, there were dis- Bagge, Sverre. \u201cThe Formation of the State and Concepts of agreements in some cases as to the rulings themselves. Society in 13th Century Norway.\u201d In Continuity and Change: Finally, certain religious zealots who lacked training in Political Institutions and Literary Monuments in the Middle philosophy objected strenuously to his philosophical no- Ages. A Symposium. Ed. Elisabeth Vestergaard. Odense: tions, contained both in his commentary on the Mishnah Odense University Press, 1986, pp. 43\u201361. and in the legal code. The situation worsened when he Bagge, Sverre. \u201cBorgerkrig og statsutvikling i Norge i middelal- wrote his great philosophical work, Dala\u00af lat al-ba\u00af \u2019ir\u00af\u0131n deren.\u201d Historisk tidsskrift (Norway) 65 (1986), 145\u201397. (Guide for the Perplexed). Clearly intended only for Sandvik, Gudmund. \u201cS\u00e6ttargjerda i Tunsberg og kongens juris- those with the necessary preliminary background of diksjon.\u201d In Samfunn. Rett. Rettferdighet. Festskrifttil Torstein rigorous study, the book was translated twice from Ju- Eckhoffs 70-\u00e5rsdag. Ed. A. Bratholm et al. Oslo: Tano, 1986, deo-Arabic into Hebrew and thus soon fell into the hands pp. 563\u201385. of those without such background. Its clear denial of Bagge, Sverre. The Political Thought of the King\u2019s Mirror. such fundamental popular beliefs as miracles, creation Mediaeval Scandinavia Supplements, 3. Odense: Odense in time, resurrection, and so forth combined with alle- University Press, 1987. gorizing of many biblical and rabbinic statements, gave rise to charges of heresy. The result was a controversy J\u00f3n Vi\u00f0ar Sigur\u00f0sson that lasted in Spain and Provence for hundreds of years, and actually led to Jewish-inspired condemnation and MAIMONIDES (1138\u20131204) burning of the book at Montpellier around 1232. Likened by more than one medieval Jewish writer to the In spite of the philosophical controversy, Maimonides prophet Moses (\u201cFrom Moses to Moses there was none continued to be revered as a legal authority throughout like Moses\u201d), Moses ben Maimon (correctly, Maimu\u00afn) the Middle Ages in Spain and elsewhere. Even those was born in C\u00f3rdoba not in 1135, as is usually assumed who disagreed with him, such as Nahmanides and Ibn (and so the 850th anniversary was universally celebrated Adret, cite him constantly and respectfully. Communi- in 1985) but in 1138, where he was educated and began ties, such as Tudela, enacted decrees according to which writing his first works. only his rulings were to be followed; similar decisions were made throughout North Africa and Yemen. His father, Maimkn, was a dayan (religious judge) of the Jewish community of C\u00f3rdoba, and a student No less important was his impact on Christians in of the great Joseph ibn Megash, and himself author of Spain. In Arag\u00f3n-Catalonia, various kings ordered some responsa and \u201cLetters of Consolation\u201d meant to translations of the Guide and even of the Mishneh Torah. strengthen the Jews in the face of the Almohad persecu- Philosophers in Spain (and, of course, the scholastics tion. It was due to this that the family left Spain around in general) who were influenced by him include Poncio 1160, settling first in Fez, Morocco, and then briefly in Carbonell (fourteenth century) and, more important, Palestine. From there they went to Egypt and settled at Alfonso de la Torre (fifteenth century). Sancho, son Fustat, a suburb of Cairo, where Jews were allowed to of Jaime I, archbishop of Toledo (1266\u20131275), and live. The twin tragedies of the death of his father and Archbishop Gonzalo Garc\u00eda Gudiel (1280\u20131299) both then his brother David devasted the young scholar, who possessed copies of his work. In the fifteenth century, had to support himself and his family by becoming a Pedro D\u00edaz de Toledo, possibly a converso (Jewish doctor and court physician to the waz\u00af\u0131r (prime minister) convert to Christianity), made a Spanish translation of and his son. Never did he convert, or even appear out- the Guide. wardly to do so, to Islam, as a long-discredited legend maintains. Maimonides died in 1204, and tradition maintains that his grave is near Tiberias. Within a few years he had become by reputation the most famous physician of the Muslim world. At the Further Reading same time, his reputation in Jewish learning, established already by his brilliant commentary on the Mishnah, Maimonides. Guide for the Perplexed. Trans. P. D\u00edaz de Toledo. was growing. Questions poured in from all parts of Ed. Mosh\u00e9 Lazar. Madison, Wisc., 1989. the world. Working almost entirely from memory, and under the most difficult conditions imposed upon him Ormsby, E. (ed.) Moses Maimonides and His Time. Washington, by the demands of his medical practice, he composed in D.C., 1989. clear and simple Hebrew the Mishneh Torah, a work in fourteen volumes that encompasses the whole of Jewish Roth, N. Maimonides: Essays and Texts. Madison, Wisc., 1985 law. This work quickly became the accepted authority (also with bibliographies, including Spanish). for Jewish law, the only such composition ever written by someone who was not a rabbi. Norman Roth 434","MALISPINI, RICORDANO MALISPINI, RICORDANO (probably 14th century) of such passages in both the Malispinian and the post- Malispinian portions of this manuscript points to the Ricordano Malispini was allegedly the thirteenth-cen- genealogical purpose and the fourteenth-century date tury author of a history of Florence from its legendary of the Malispinian compilation. A further confirmation origins to 1282; a continuation down to 1286 was as- of its late date is furnished by Porta (1986, 1994), who cribed to a nephew, Giacotto. Some scholars consider discovered links between the texts of the anonymous this chronicle an important source for Giovanni Villani compendium of Villani and Malispini on the one hand, and Dante. Documentary evidence has been found for and a revised version, made after 1333, of Giovanni Giacotto\u2019s existence, though not for Ricordano\u2019s. How- Villani\u2019s chronicle on the other. If Villani had copied ever, the chronicle itself contains anachronisms, some Malispini, diese links would be present in the first ver- of which were first noted by Scheffer-Boichorst (1870), sion of Villani\u2019s chronicle as well. and these make a fourteenth-century date very probable. A chief purpose of the chronicle appears to have been Such evidence should lay to rest the old theory to celebrate the exploits of members of the Bonaguisi that Malispini was the thirteenth-century father of family, and to link the Bonaguisi with the aristocratic Florentine historiography. Malispini was, rather, a late and once-powerful Malispini family. Malispini writes fourteenth-century compiler, whose originality was that he derived his information from chronicles he limited to celebrating the nobility and antiquity of cer- found in the house of his Capocci kinsmen in Rome, tain Florentine families and to furnishing information and also in the Badia of Florence. The Capocci records about himself and his sources designed to validate such seem identifiable with the Libro fiesolano, which is genealogical lore. a translation and adaptation of the Liber de origine civitatis, the first surviving account of the founding of Further Reading Florence. The Badia records seem identifiable with an anonymous compendium of Giovanni Villani. The only Editions known text of this compendium, discovered by Lami (1890), is manuscript 2.1.252, held in the Biblioteca Libro fiesolano, ed. Otio Hartwig. In Quellen und Forschungen Nazionale Centrale in Florence. Malispini also includes zur \u00e4ltesten Geschicbte der Stadt Florenz, Vol. 1. Marburg: information about some families that are not mentioned N. G. Elwert\u2019sche Verlagsbuch, 1875, pp. 37\u201365. either in the Libro fiesolano or in the compendium of Villani. Malispini, Ricordano. Storia fiorentina, col seguito di Giacotto Malispini, dalla edificazione di Firenze sino all\u2019anno 1286, The Libro fiesolano covers the period from the leg- ed.Vincenzio Follini. Florence: G. Ricri, 1816. endary origins of Florence to its rebuilding after Totila\u2019s sack (which is fictitious) and the final capture of Fiesole. Villani, Giovanni. Nuova cronica, 3 vols., ed. Giuseppe Porta. The anonymous compendium abridges and paraphrases Parma: Ugo Guanda Editore, 1990\u20131991. Villani\u2019s chronicle from chapter 30 of the first book (Catiline\u2019s conspiracy) until 1336. Malispini copies Critical Studies his account of early Florentine history from the Libro fiesolano, rather than from the anonymous compendium, Aquilecchia, Giovanni. \u201cMalispini, Ricordano.\u201d In Encyclopedia but he includes Charlemagne\u2019s supposed participation dantesca, Vol. 3. Rome: Istituto della Encyclopedia Italiana, in the rebuilding of Florence, which is mentioned in the 1971, pp. 791\u2013792. compendium but omitted in Libro fiesolano. Malispini then follows the anonymous compendium to 1282, and Barnes, John C. \u201cUn problems in via di chiusura: La \u2018Cronica\u2019 Giacotto\u2019s coda follows it to 1286. malispiniana.\u201d Studi e Problemi di Critica Testuale, 27, 1983, pp. 15\u201332. One manuscript, often considered the oldest and most reliable copy of Malispini, has a distinctive relationship Davis, Charles T. Dante and the Idea of Rome. Oxford: Clarendon, to the anonymous compendium. This is manuscript 1957, pp. 244\u2013263. 2.4.27, in the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale in Flor- ence. It corresponds almost exactly to the anonymous \u2014\u2014. \u201cThe Malispini Question.\u201d Studi Medievali, Series 3(10), compendium not only for the period from Charlemagne 1970, pp. 215\u2013254. (Reprinted in Dante\u2019s Italy and Other to 1286, but also for 1286\u20131317. The only novelty in this Essays. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984, concluding post-Malispinian portion of the manuscript pp. 94\u2013136.) is its interpolated passages praising the Bonaguisi and other related families. These passages are very similar De Matteis, Maria C. \u201cAncora su Malispini, Villani, e Dante: Per to others praising the same families in this and other un riesame dei rapporti tra cultura storica e profezia Erica manuscripts of the Malispinian chronicle. The presence nell\u2019Alighieri.\u201d Bullettino dell\u2019Istituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo e Archivio Muratoriano, 82, 1970, pp. 329\u2013390. (Published 1973.) \u2014\u2014. \u201cMalispini da Villani o Villani da Malispini? Una ipotesi sui rapporti tra Ricordano Malispini, il \u2018Compendiatore,\u2019 e Giovanni Villani.\u201d Bullettino dell\u2019Istituto Storico Italiano per il Media Evo e Archivio Muratoriano, 84, 1973, pp. 145\u2013221. (Published 1978.) Lami, Vittorio. \u201cDi un compendio inedito della cronica di Giovanni Villani nelle sue relazioni con la storia fiorentina malispiniana.\u201d Archivio Storico Italiano, Series 5(5), 1890, pp. 369\u2013416. Maissen, Thomas. \u201cActila, Totila, e Cario Magno.\u201d Archivio Storico Italiano, 152 (fasc. 561), 1994, pp. 586\u2013639. 435","MALISPINI, RICORDANO was the son of a country gentleman, inherited his lands in 1433 or 1434, was knighted, and perhaps served as Morghen, Raffaello. \u201cNote malispiniane.\u201d Bullettino dell\u2019Istituto a soldier in France. In 1445 he became a member of Storico Italiano per il Media Evo e Archivio Muratoriano, 40, parliament\u2014a sign of gentry status, not of democratic 1920, pp. 105\u2013126. election. He also became embroiled in the factional disturbances of the times and was on numerous oc- \u2014\u2014. \u201cDante, il Villani, e Ricordano Malispini.\u201d Bullettino casions in the next ten years accused of such violent dell\u2019Istituto Storico Italiano per il Media Evo e Archivio crimes as ambush, rape, extortion, cattle stealing, theft Muratoriano, 41, 1921, pp. 171\u2013194. of money, and prison breaking. He underwent a series of imprisonments and despite his escapes spent much \u2014\u2014. \u201cAncora sulla questione malispiniana.\u201d Bullettino time in jail. Some of the accusations, perhaps some dell\u2019Istituto Storico Italiano per il Media Evo e Archivio of the violence, may have been politically motivated, Muratoriano, 46, 1931, pp. 41\u201392. for Malory supported various noblemen (including Warwick the \u201cKingmaker\u201d) who contended for power Porta, Giuseppe. \u201cSul testo e la lingua di Giovanni Villani.\u201d during the Wars of the Roses, following now one king, Lingua Nostra, 47, 1986, pp. 37\u201340. the Lancastrian Henry VI, and now another, the Yorkist Edward IV. \u2014\u2014. \u201cLe varianti redazionali come strumento di verifica dell\u2019autenticit\u00e0 dei testi: Villani e Malispini.\u201d Convegno della After a period of freedom Malory spent the years societ\u00e0 italiana di filologia romanza, Universit\u00e0 di Messina, 1468\u201370 in prison, where he wrote Le Morte Darthur. December 19\u201322, 1991. Messina, 1994, pp. 481\u2013529. The book is full of violent adventure and concludes in civil war and Arthur\u2019s death. But it is also deeply Scheffer\u2013Boichorst, Paul. \u201cDie florentinische Geschichte der concerned with the high ideals of chivalry, with honor, Malespini, eine F\u00e4lschung.\u201d Historische Zeitschrift, 24, 1870, loyalty, and goodness. It may seem that the book\u2019s pp. 274\u2013313. (Reprinted in Florentiner Studien. Leipzig: S. inherent nobility contrasts strangely with the apparent Hirzel, 1874, pp. 1\u201344.) criminality of the author. But perhaps Malory saw him- self in imagination as a modern Sir Lancelot fighting for Charles T. Davis and asserting his own and his lord\u2019s rights against other \u201cfalse recreant knights,\u201d as he might have called them. MALORY, THOMAS (1414\/18\u20131471) Text One of the latest and most effective of the many medi- eval writers about King Arthur and his knights of the Two versions of Le Morte Darthur survive, neither Round Table. In his book traditionally called Le Morte originating immediately from Malory\u2019s hand. One is Darthur (The Death of Arthur) Malory gathers together the edition printed by Caxton in 1485, reprinted 1498, the results of centuries of storytelling, mainly by medi- 1529, 1557, circa 1578, again (somewhat changed) in eval French authors. He synthesizes the narratives into 1634, then not again till 1816, In the later 19th century one massive, varied book of the life, acts, and death of began the modern series of editions based on Caxton, Arthur and his company. The wealth of incident, rich including that notoriously illustrated by Aubrey Beard- implications, and laconic style make his the only ver- sley (1893\u201394). But in 1934 a manuscript of Le Morte sion of the huge number of medieval Arthurian tales in Darthur now in the British Library (Add. 59678) was European languages that continues to be read directly discovered in Winchester College; it was first edited in and simply for pleasure by the modern reader. The 1947 by Eug\u00e8ne Vinaver. main characters\u2014King Arthur himself; Sir Lancelot, his best knight, but also lover of his queen, Guinevere; The Winchester manuscript contains a text slightly his sister\u2019s son the violent Sir Gawain; his incestuously different from Caxton\u2019s, including fuller versions of begotten son and nephew Sir Mordred, who kills him; eight addresses by Malory to the reader, varying in Merlin the magician\u2014are at the center of a set of tales length from a few sentences to the paragraph at the end of wonders, bravery, love, joy, and tragedy. But Malory of the whole book. They come at the end of substan- tells romance as history\u2014the history of England said to tial sections and are known as explicits (explicit, \u201cit is be in the 5th century, but actually represented in terms finished\u201d). From these explicits Vinaver deduced that, of the feelings, strivings, ideals, betrayals, even the instead of one book, Malory wrote eight entirely sepa- armor and the geography (e.g., Camelot is identified rate romances. Their apparent separateness is enhanced with Winchester) of Malory\u2019s own troubled 15th-century in his edition by such typographical devices as capitals England. Malory\u2019s achievement is the source of many at the end of the sections for which there is no manu- of the retellings of Arthurian story so common today in script justification. Vinaver\u2019s edition is thus confusingly the United States and Britain. Life Identification of the Sir Thomas Malory who names himself as author of Le Morte Darthur has been contro- versial, but thanks to the work of P.J.C. Field and others it seems once more to be probable that he was the Sir Thomas Malory of Newbold Revel in Warwickshire. He 436","entitled The Works of Sir Thomas Malory. Virtually all MALORY, THOMAS scholars and critics now reject this concept of totally separate works but do accept the episodic nature of and marries Guinevere, though Merlin warns him that the work even within the eight main sections and the she and Lancelot will love each other. She brings with existence of a number of inevitable inconsistencies both her the Round Table, which henceforth will denote the between and within the main sections. elite company of knights in Arthur\u2019s court. The Winchester manuscript is separated from This first section thus sets the scene and establishes Malory\u2019s own writing by at least one intermediate Arthur\u2019s supremacy, though with its account of wars it copy and lacks a few leaves at beginning and end. is a little less typical of Malory\u2019s mature style, which Although Caxton had the Winchester manuscript in his concentrates more on individual adventures. Malory is shop for a period of time, his own edition differs from attempting to summarize his complex sources of French it significantly. He edited the text by cutting it into 21 prose romance, turning them into a kind of history, and books comptising 507 chapters, adding a fine Prologue minor inconsistencies inevitably arise. This section also and chapter headings, reducing some of the explicits, contains the tragic tale of the brothers Balin and Balan; shortening (to its advantage) the episode of the Roman with its concentration on individuals, its fated accidents, War by almost half, and making some other minor nobility of temper, deceit, dissension, and tragedy it is verbal changes. By comparing the two versions we can as stark and moving a story as any Icelandic saga. reconstruct Malory\u2019s authentic text, which is now most nearly approached by Vinaver\u2019s edition. But there are also stories of mystery, magic, adven- ture, betrayal, and mishap that end in triumph. Arthur The language of the Winchester manuscript and gains the magic sword Excalibur from the Lady of the Caxton\u2019s edition is mainly standard mid-15th-century Lake. The noble concept of the High Order of Knight- London English, with occasional northernisms. Being hood is affirmed, reinforced as it is by the oath, sworn prose, it is easily modernized; the original, though by knights of the Round Table at the annual feast of old-fashioned and containing a few unfamiliar words, Pentecost, never to do wrong, always to honor ladies, offers no difficulty apart from idiosyncratic spelling. and so on. As a narrative the story is engrossing, but it is not at all like a modern novel, and to read it as such is to court Malory\u2019s explicit to the first main section refers to disappointment and misunderstanding. himself as a \u201cknight-prisoner\u201d and appears to suggest that he may not be able to continue to write. But the Summary opening words of the second section echo this explicit so clearly as to make continuity certain. This next section Malory plunges straight into his story, telling of the is based mainly on a 14th-century English alliterative begetting of Arthur by Uther Pendragon, king of all Eng- poem, the Morte Arthure, which makes Malory\u2019s own land, on the beautiful widow (as she has just unwittingly style more alliterative. It tells how Arthur rejects the ob- become) of the duke of Cornwall, Uther being magically ligation to pay tribute to the emperor of Rome and how transformed by Merlin into the duke\u2019s likeness so as he wages successful war right into Italy. Here Lancelot to enter her bedroom. The laconic matter-of-fact style, makes his first appearance as a brave young warrior. concentrating on essentials, contrasts piquantly with the drama of passionate feeling and the magic. This The third main section moves into the area Malory contrast, much developed, is part of Malory\u2019s unending has made his own for ever\u2014the feats of individual fascination. As his great story progresses, he makes less knights wandering in search of adventure in strange use of magic, though it is always an element of mystery forests and castles. The hero of this book is Lance- in the background, suggesting a dimension beyond the lot himself, Malory\u2019s favorite knight, killing wicked material world and becoming prominent again near the knights, rescuing ladies, resisting seduction. He is end, with the return of Excalibur to the lake and the rumored to be the lover of Queen Guinevere, which he queens who carry off the dying Arthur. denies, and Malory does not describe their love. It is a relatively short section, delightfully varied and vividly We learn of Arthur\u2019s fostering, his acceptance as king interesting in event, created from a cunning selection of by the miracle that he alone can draw a sword from a incidents widely spaced in Malory\u2019s voluminous source, stone, and the gradual establishment of his power over the French prose Lancelot. dissident barons and neighboring kings. Merlin\u2019s magic helps. Arthur lusts after King Lot of Orkney\u2019s wife, Mor- Having now established both Arthur with his Round gause, mother of Gawain and other heroic knights and, Table and Lancelot, the supreme example of chivalry, unknown to him, his own half-sister. On her he begets Malory turns in his fourth section to the story of another Mordred, who will ultimately be his death. Arthur loves knight, significant to the whole history, exemplary in himself, and an adornment to the Round Table\u2014Sir Gareth of Orkney, brother to Sir Gawain. The source is unknown. The story is based on the familiar general pattern of the Fair Unknown, who is a young hero, hand- 437","MALORY, THOMAS with his own invention, is entirely his own and one of the great achievements of English literature. The core some, brave, and clever but unrecognized. He achieves of the story is the continuing love between Lancelot and success by defeating foes older and more experienced Guinevere, and the determination of some malcontents than he, winning his beloved, and establishing his to trap them, so that King Arthur has to condemn identity and his place in society. This has been termed them. Lancelot has to rescue the queen three times, a version of the \u201cfamily drama,\u201d common in fairy tale and on one occasion he accidentally kills Sir Gareth, and romance. It also illustrates the Malorian themes of his beloved friend, whom he had himself knighted. This bravery, noble bearing, and courtesy. joins Gareth\u2019s brother Gawain to Lancelot\u2019s enemies, and eventually Arthur is forced by Gawain to declare There follows the long section, over a third of the war on Lancelot. whole work, centered on the story of Tristram and Isolde, with so many other knights and adventures inter- During Arthur\u2019s absence at the war Mordred claims mingled that it is impossible to summarize adequately. the throne and attempts to marry Guinevere. Ultimately, The ancient tragedy of Tristram\u2019s and Isoldes obsessive after Gawain has repented of his vengeful feud against mutual infatuation had already been diluted by Malory\u2019s Lancelot and died from wounds, Mordred confronts French sources, and at the end of Malory\u2019s version the Arthur in battle. The bastard son and noble father kill lovers retire to adulterous bliss in Lancelot\u2019s castle of each other in the desolation of the corpse-strewn battle- Joyous Gard. Tristram is here an adventurous knight field. Arthur dies slowly by a \u201cwater-side.\u201d Excalibur similar and almost equal to Lancelot. He has a jesting is thrown into a lake and a hand mysteriously grasps it. companion, Sir Dinadan, who brings commonsensi- Queens come in a boat to take Arthur to Avalon. It is cal skepticism to the craziness of knight-errantry but an unforgettably eerie scene, rich in the ancient potent is a good knight of his hands for all that. King Mark, symbolism of the separation, dissolution, and healing husband of Isolde, is portrayed as a treacherous villain. power of death. Guinevere enters a nunnery; after a final Only incidentally, in a later section, is Mark\u2019s murder of interview with her Lancelot withdraws to a hermitage, Tristram noted. This Tristram section, full of adventures, and they die without meeting again. disguises, unexpected meetings, unexplained departures, and arbitrary battles, has all the mystery and excitement No mere summary can convey the power, beauty, and of romance. It is the part of Malory\u2019s work least like the pathos of these two sections. Much of the action is con- world of plausible appearances of the novel. veyed through brilliant terse dialogue, occasionally with a touch of grim or sarcastic humor. There is a wealth A digression toward the end of the Tristram section of incident in such episodes as Lancelot\u2019s rescues of tells how Lancelot was tricked into begetting Sir Ga- Guinevere, or in the beautiful account of the Fair Maid lahad upon Elaine, daughter of Sir Pelles. This leads of Ascolat (later spelled Astolat), who dies for love of naturally to the sixth section, in which Sir Galahad, now Lancelot, or the moving story of Lancelot\u2019s healing of a pure virginal young knight, comes to King Arthur\u2019s Sir Urry. The best knight in the world weeps in humility court. Miraculous events initiate the Quest of the Holy as he performs the miraculous cure, yet he is the one who Grail. The Grail, according to Malory, is the dish from causes the destruction of Arthur\u2019s Round Table. which Christ ate with the apostles on Easter, brought to England by Joseph of Arimathea and endowed with Malory\u2019s imaginative world is narrow. It is com- properties both holy and magical. Hermits exhort the posed only of Arthur, of good or bad knights, and a few knights in their quest, visions and allegories abound, desirable or treacherous ladies who, with two or three though Malory greatly abbreviates the religious didacti- exceptions, are hardly more than ciphers. No ordinary cism of his French source. Only Galahad, Percival, and concerns of life appear. Simple themes are illustrated Bors succeed in seeing the Grail; Galahad and Percival by simple actions, performed by characters with few both die, passing beyond human ken, and Bors is the traits and virtually no inner life. Yet Malory\u2019s earnest only successful Grail knight to return to Camelot. Lance- concentration on fundamental issues of loyalty, love, lot is granted only a partial vision of the Grail. He is and combat, guided by a complex system of honor, is flawed by his love of Guinevere, but Malory changes the intensely alive. The encounters, friendly or hostile, the monastic spirit of the original, so that Lancelot remains wanderings, the seemingly arbitrary events combined in a sense the hero. Despite all the changes many beauti- with the sense of destiny, the comradeship and the ful and magical scenes remain, as in the appearance of betrayals, create a profound symbol of life that we can the ship with Percival\u2019s sister. easily relate to. Malory\u2019s prose creates a sense of the man as in his essence he would be: no mere \u201cnarrator\u201d The last two sections of Le Morte Darthur, the but writing directly to us in the colloquial yet dignified seventh and eighth, may be considered as one, for they manner of a brave and courteous country gentleman, tell of the supreme glory of the Round Table and its on a subject that deeply matters to him, the history of tragic end in a series of closely connected episodes. Arthur, of England, of all of us. Malory\u2019s art is here at its greatest. He blends French and English sources, but what he makes, fleshed out 438","See also Caxton, William MANDEVILLE, JEAN DE Further Reading MANDEVILLE, JEAN DE (d. 1372) Primary Sources Composed at Li\u00e8ge ca. 1357 by an otherwise uniden- Brewer, Derek Stanley, ed. The Morte Darthur, Parts Seven and tifiable English knight-voyager, Mandeville\u2019s Voyages Eight. London: Arnold, 1968 [modernized text]. d\u2019outre-mer was the most popular secular book of its day, surviving in over 250 manuscripts and some ninety Cowen, Janet, ed. Le Morte D\u2019Arthur. 2 vols. Harmondsworth: incunabula, including translations into Latin, English, Penguin, 1969 [Caxton\u2019s edition in modernized spelling]. Danish, Dutch, German, Italian, Spanish, Czech, and Irish. Of the three distinct versions, the earliest was Le Morte D\u2019Arthur Printed by William Caxton 1485. London: certainly composed in French on the Continent. An Scolar, 1976 [facsimile] . \u201cinsular\u201d version, done ca. 1390 in England, is a Middle English classic, whose anonymous author is sometimes Spisak, James W., ed. Caxton\u2019s Malory. 2 vols. Berkeley: Uni- considered the \u201cfather\u201d of English prose. The Voyages versity of California Press, 1983. popularized the newly discovered wonders of the East, including much fabulous material, and gives a lengthy Vinaver, Eug\u00e8ne, ed. The Works of Sir Thomas Malory. 3d ed. description of the Holy Land. Mandeville compiled the Rev. P.J.C. Field. 3 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1990. work at third hand from French translations by Jean Le Long of Saint-Omer (d. 1383) of genuine Latin travel The Winchester Malory. EETS s.s. 4. London: Oxford University accounts from the early 14th century. Le Long\u2019s trans- Press, 1976 [facsimile]. lations of five Latin travel accounts are found together in several manuscripts, of which the best known is the Secondary Sources Livre des merveilles (B.N. fr. 2810), copied ca. 1400 for the duke of Burgundy. Mandeville also drew liberally New CBEL 1:674\u201378. from Vincent de Beauvais\u2019s Speculum naturale, Marco Manual 3:757\u201371, 909\u201324. Polo\u2019s Devisement du monde, Gossuin de Metz\u2019s Image Archibald, Elizabeth, and A.S.G. Edwards, eds. A Companion to du monde, and Brunetto Latini. Malory. Cambridge: Brewer, 1996. Though filled with fabulous accounts, the Voyages Bennett, J.A.W., ed. Essays on Malory. Oxford: Clarendon, relates in a simple and unselfconscious prose the sum of medieval knowledge of the world. It explains, for 1963. example, why the world is round and incorporates many Benson, Larry D. Malory\u2019s Morte Darthur. Cambridge: Harvard other accurate observations. Through the centuries, it has been alternately praised for its style and richness University Press, 1976. and damned for absurdities and plagiarism. The author Brewer, Derek Stanley. Symbolic Stories: Traditional Narra- has on occasion been confused with a Li\u00e8ge physician, Jean de Bourgogne, and with the writer and notary Jean tives of the Family Drama in English Literature. Cambridge: d\u2019Outremeuse. Mandeville is also credited with a French Brewer, 1980 [on the story of Sir Gareth]. prose lapidary found in 15th-century manuscripts and Field, P.J.C. The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Malory. Cam- early printed editions. bridge: Brewer, 1993. Gaines, Barry. Sir Thomas Malory: An Anecdotal Bibliography See also Brunetto Latini; Polo, Marco; Vincent de of Editions 1485\u20131985. New York: AMS, 1990. Beauvais Ihle, Sandra Ness. Malory\u2019s Grail Quest: Invention and Adap- tation in Medieval Prose Romance. Madison: University of Further Reading Wisconsin Press, 1983. Kato, Tomomi, ed. A Concordance to the Works of Sir Thomas Mandeville, Jean de. Mandeville\u2019s Travels, Texts and Transla- Malory. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1974. tions, ed. M. Letts. London: Hakluyt Society, 1953. [Edition Kennedy, Beverly. Knighthood in the Morte Darthur. Cambridge: of B.N. fr. 4515 and the English \u201cEgerton\u201d translation.] Brewer, 1985. Knight, Stephen. Arthurian Literature and Society. London: \u2014\u2014. Mandeville\u2019s Travels, ed. Michael C. Seymour. Oxford: Macmillan, 1983. Clarendon, 1967. [Edition of the English \u201cCotton\u201d transla- Lambert, Mark. Malory: Style and Vision in Le Morte Darthur. tion.] New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975. Life, Page West. Sir Thomas Malory and the Morte Darthur: A \u2014\u2014. The Metrical Version of Mandeville\u2019s Travels, ed. Michael Survey of Scholarship and Annotated Bibliography. Charlot- C. Seymour. London: Early English Text Society, 1973. tesville: University Press of Virginia, 1980. McCarthy, Terence. An Introduction to Malory. Cambridge: \u2014\u2014. The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, trans. C.W.R.D. Brewer, 1993. Moseley. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983. [Modern English Parins, Marylyn Jackson, ed. Malory: The Critical Heritage. translation.] London: Routledge, 1988. Riddy, Felicity. Sir Thomas Malory. Leiden: Brill, 1987. De Poerck, Guy. \u201cLa tradition manuscrite des Voyages de Jean de Sandved, Arthur O. Studies in the Language of Caxton\u2019s Malory Mandeville.\u201d Romanica gandensia 4 (1955): 125\u201358. and That of the Winchester Manuscript. Oslo: Norwegian Universities Press, 1968. Spisak, James W., ed. Studies in Malory. Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute, 1985. Takamiya, Toshiyuki, and Derek S. Brewer, eds. Aspects of Malory. Cambridge: Brewer, 1981. Repr. with updated bib- liography, 1986. Whitaker, Muriel. Arthur\u2019s Kingdom of Adventure: The World of Malory\u2019s Morte Darthur. Cambridge: Brewer, 1984. Derek S. Brewer 439","MANDEVILLE, JEAN DE Apulia had fallen into his hands by the time Innocent died (10 August 1254). Goosse, A. \u201cLes lapidaires attribu\u00e9s \u00e0 Mandeville.\u201d Dialectes belgo-romans 17 (1960): 63\u2013112. Manfred could not placate Innocent\u2019s successor, Pope Alexander IV (r. 1254\u20131261), but Alexander William W. Kibler actually put little effort into the vendetta of the papacy against the Hohenstaufen. Manfred was thus free to MANFRED (1232\u201326 February 1266) put the kingdom in order. By 1257, he had imprisoned Berthold and banished Pietro Ruffo. On the false rumor Manfred was the natural son of Emperor Frederick II that Conradin had died, the Sicilian barons proclaimed Hohenstaufen and Bianca Lancia of Monferrato; he Manfred king. He was crowned at Palermo on 10 August closely resembled his father physically and, to a consid- 1258. Manfred soon became deeply involved in central erable degree, temperamentally. Manfred was an astute and northern Italy. He attempted to create a federation politician and courageous soldier; he was the emperor\u2019s of barons, cities, and factions under his leadership by intellectual soulmate, but his own personality was less providing military assistance, negotiating treaties and dynamic. Manfred\u2019s career was confined to Italy. His marriages, and courting urban factions. In 1258, he illegitimate birth limited his political effectiveness, and joined in a promising but unsuccessful alliance with he ultimately lost his kingdom to the combined forces the despot of Epirus, Michael II, against the Byzantine of the papacy, Charles of Anjou, Tuscan financiers, and emperor, Michael VIII Palaeologus. In 1262, Manfred Sicilian barons. The defeat of Manfred sent the Mez- arranged a marriage between his daughter Constance zogiorno (southern Italy) into a centuries-long decline, and the infante, Peter of Aragon; this marriage would the effects of which linger to the present. later justify Aragon\u2019s intervention in the Sicilian Vespers uprising of 1282. Manfred may have studied at Paris and Bologna, and he was active in the courtly culture of the kingdom of Manfred reached the height of his power when he and Sicily. When Frederick died in December 1250, Man- the Ghibelline factions of Florence and Siena defeated fred became the regent of his half brother, Conrad IV the Guelfs of Tuscany at Montaperti on 4 September (1250\u20131254), who was in Germany. Manfred was gener- 1260. He subsequently posed as lord of Italy and sent ally popular among the feudal nobles of the kingdom, vicars throughout the peninsula, but he did not have but he faced persistent opposition from important barons the force to sustain his ambitions. When the energetic and cities. In December 1251, he tried but failed to Urban IV (r. 1261\u20131264) became pope, he renewed the reach an accord with Pope Innocent IV (r. 1243\u20131254). assault on Manfred. Urban found a champion in Charles Manfred may have offered to exchange recognition of of Anjou, count of Provence and brother of Louis IX of papal overlordship for the Sicilian crown. In December France. Louis had previously blocked papal overtures to 1251, Conrad went to the kingdom to establish his own Charles, but Urban argued that Manfred had unlawfully royal authority. He revoked all of Manfred\u2019s fiefs except dispossessed his nephew Conradin, and this reasoning the principality of Taranto and forced the humiliated apparently laid the scruples of the saintly king to rest. Manfred to remain at court. The pope also persuaded Florentine and Sienese bankers to finance an invasion of the kingdom of Sicily. Conrad died in May 1254. Guelf chroniclers insist that Manfred poisoned him, but other sources do not Late in 1262, Manfred attempted to make a deal with concur. Manfred then faced great difficulties. Conrad Urban, but the negotiations collapsed. The pope invested had named the church as guardian of his son, Conra- Charles with the kingdom in December 1262. War soon din, and appointed the leader of the German barons, followed. Manfred\u2019s allies scored several early victories Berthold of Hohenburg, as his bailiff. Innocent IV against papal and Guelf forces and almost captured the invested Edmund, the second son of King Henry III of city of Rome in 1264. After Urban died, the new pope, England, with the kingdom. Meanwhile, Pietro Ruffo, Clement IV (r. 1265\u20131268), quickly confirmed the treaty who controlled Calabria and Sicily, played Manfred with Charles, who left Provence for Rome in May 1265. against Innocent. Manfred dispatched a manifesto to Rome, in which he revived Frederick\u2019s argument that the Romans\u2014not the Most of the nobility of the kingdom rallied to Man- pope\u2014had the right to choose the emperor. There is no fred, whom they considered the natural regent of young extant reply. Charles arrived in Rome on 28 June 1265 Conradin. The pope refused to recognize Conradin\u2019s and took charge of the war against Manfred. rights and demanded possession of the kingdom. Open warfare ensued, and Innocent excommunicated Manfred After an unsuccessful attack on Rome in August and his adherents. Manfred was unprepared for war and 1265, Manfred returned to his kingdom to find his quickly sued for peace. During the negotiations he killed domestic enemies ranged against him and his treasury a papal partisan and fled to Lucera, the imperial Muslim empty. Many of his allies went over to Charles, made stronghold near Foggia. Manfred seized the treasury of peace with the pope, or became neutral. In December Frederick II and Conrad IV and raised a powerful army. He defeated the papal army near Foggia. Almost all of 440","1265, Charles\u2019s army from Provence passed through MANRIQUE, JORGE Piedmont and Lombardy without opposition. Charles moved into Campania in January 1266 without a fight. Svevia\u2014Dalla vita terrena all\u2019oltretomba dantesco. Fasano: Betrayed and deserted by the Sicilian barons, Manfred Schena, 1994.) died bravely on the plain of Grandella near Benevento Morghen, Raffaello. Il tramonto della potenza Sveva in Italia. on 26 February 1266. He was buried outside Benevento, Rome: Tunninelli, 1936. (Reprinted as L\u2019et\u00e0 degli svevi in but the archbishop of Cosenza later had his remains dis- Italia. Palermo: Paiumbo, 1974.) interred and removed from the kingdom to an unmarked Nardi, Bruno. Il canto di Manfredi e il Liber de pomo sive De grave near Garigliano. morte Aristotilis. Turin: Societ\u00e0 Editrice Internazionale, 1964. Pispisa, Enrico. Il regno di Manfredi: Proposte di interpretazione. Manfred\u2019s fall may have been inevitable. The pa- Messina: Sicania, 1991. pacy was determined to extinguish the Hohenstaufen dynasty, and Charles of Anjou was a hard and relentless John Lomax campaigner, whose talents and war chest were equal to his greed and ambition. The fickle Sicilian barons who MANRIQUE, JORGE betrayed Manfred did not prosper as a result. After (ca. 1440\u20131479) slaughtering Manfred\u2019s adherents, Charles replaced the treasonous barons with his own French supporters. The reputation of Jorge Manrique has long rested Charles exploited the efficient Sicilian fiscal apparatus principally upon his Coplas por la muerte de su padre, to bleed the kingdom white, but he returned none of the most familiar to English-speaking readers through good government that had accompanied the Normans\u2019 Longfellow\u2019s translation. His poetic range extends, and the Hohenstaufen\u2019s exactions. Commerce fell into however, beyond the serious mood of the Coplas to a the hands of Venetian and Genoese merchants and wide variety of compositions found in the late medieval Tuscan bankers, and wealth flowed to the Angevins or and fifteenth-century cancioneros, in which Manrique migrated from the Mezzogiorno altogether. The power- demonstrates a fluent handling of the current verbal and ful, well-ordered, and prosperous kingdom of Sicily conceptual conventions of the genres and categories gave way to bad government and chronic poverty. involved. These include personal satire and various approaches to conventional amorous themes, among Manfred was an active patron of poets and scientists them verses in which a lady\u2019s name is conveyed acrosti- and a scholar in his own right. He sponsored and perhaps cally, and renderings of the traditional motif of love as engaged in the translation of Greek and Arab treatises on a siege (Escala de amor), a castle (Castillo de amor), philosophy. He revised and commented on the De arte or membership of a religious order (Profesion que hizo venandi cum avibus of Frederick II, which the emperor en la orden de amor). Critical evaluation of Manrique\u2019s had dedicated to him. In the Commedia, Dante depicts verse has concentrated primarily upon the Coplas, but Manfred at the base of the mount of Purgatory with a the importance of his other writings is now generally band of souls who had repented their sins at the mo- recognized. ment of death (Purgatory, 3.103\u2013145). The legend of Manfred\u2019s heroic and pious end, which inspired Dante, Jorge Manrique\u2019s life was marked by active involve- was turned to nationalist purposes in the nineteenth ment in the politics of his day and their military exten- century during the Risorgimento. sion. His family was prominent in the turbulent events of the reign of Enrique IV; his father Rodrigo (1406\u20131476), See also Frederick II count of Paredes and a master of the Order of Santiago, was involved in the abortive elevation of the puppet- Further Reading king Alfonso against Enrique (an event alluded to in the Coplas). To Jorge fell the role of maintaining this Edition involvement in the next phase of the succession dispute, and, having actively espoused the cause of Fernando and Capasso, Bartolommeo, ed. Historia diplomatica regnt Siciliae Isabel he was fatally wounded in a minor action. inde ab anno 1250 ad annum 1266. Naples: Typographia Regiae Universitacis, 1874. The military aspect of Manrique\u2019s career fundamen- tally marked his poetry; his work stands comparison Critical Studies with that of any war poet of any period. Imagery drawn from the experience and equipment of medieval warfare Abulafia, David. Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor. London: abounds even in the amorous poems (it is, indeed, the Allen Lane\/Penguin, 1988. (See the final chapter.) very foundation of Escala and Castillo, while isolated images occur in other poems), and permeates the Co- Housley, Norman. The Italian Crusades: The Papal\u2013Angevin plas, where death is expressed in terms of an ambush Alliance and the Crusades against Christian Lay Powers, and an arrow, against whose force the strongest fortifi- 1254\u20131343. Oxford: Clarendon, 1982. cations and armies are powerless and ineffective. The tournament panoply of the warrior caste (among other Leone, Gino. La salvazione dell\u2019anima di Manfredi in Dante ad dimensions of its courtly existence such as music and opera di Dante nel III canto del Purgatorio. Matera: Monte- murro, 1969. (Reprinted as Un re nel purgatorio: Manfredi di 441","MANRIQUE, JORGE translation) are problematic; they do not form a natural part of the poem. Their attribution to Manrique remains dancing) is richly evoked in the poet\u2019s examination of questionable; even if ultimately proven to be by his hand, the meaning of life. For Manrique, war is a necessary they are best viewed as originally independent stanzas element in existence: the noble\u2019s duty is to fight for his that later became an accretion to the Coplas. During the faith against its enemies (just as that of the priest is to sixteenth century, the Coplas were frequently printed, pray), and by doing so he merits salvation. His father, and private manuscript copies further attest their popu- Rodrigo, is praised for his effectiveness in this sphere, larity. It is clear that the poem circulated in a wide variety and his entry to paradise is, as a result, taken for granted of forms and contexts. Important among these are the in the idealized deathbed scene that closes the poem. early printed editions in which the text is accompanied But Rodrigo is also commended by the poet for his part by a poetic gloss; the Coplas soon attracted the atten- in the civil wars in support of the legitimate candidate tion of glossators, the earliest of whom was Alonso de for the throne, and also for fighting fellow-Christians Cervantes (first printed in 1501). in the maintenance of his own status and domains. The political aspect of his career is thus an essential element Further Reading in the poet\u2019s eulogy of his father Rodrigo\u2019s greatness. In this Jorge Manrique is merely reflecting the importance Editions attached to estado (state) and to the behavior appropriate to one\u2019s rank, in contemporary thinking; beyond mere Beltr\u00e1n, V. Coplas que hizo Jorge Manrique a la muerte de su physical existence lies a further dimension of fama, the padre. Barcelona, 1991. existence implied in one\u2019s reputation, which survives after death; this itself is, of course, a poor second to Serrano de Haro, A. Jorge Manrique; Obras. Madrid, 1986. eternal life, though an essential prerequisite for it in so far as it indicates a worthy life. In addition to the Studies doctrinal statements made and political points scored in the poem, various conscious statements of literary Dom\u00ednguez, F. A. Love and Remembrance: The Poetry of Jorge attitude are explicit, as in the rejection of traditional Manrique. Lexington, Ky., 1988. poetic invocations and classical examples in the Ubi sunt?, while others remain implicit. Although the Coplas Serrano de Haro, A. Personalidad y destino de Jorge Manrique. have been widely praised, and is indubitably in many 2d ed. Madrid, 1975. respects a masterpiece, problems have been noted in various aspects of the poem from the earliest commenta- David Hook tors to the present. The Coplas make use of a wide range of traditional imagery drawn from the Bible and other MANS. U\u00af R, AL- (fl. 976-1002) sources in addition to the author\u2019s military experience, with the transience of earthly life and the inevitability Ibn \u2018Ab\u00af\u0131 A\u00af mir, later known as Al-Mans.u\u00afr was the last of death being conveyed in a densely textured series of the great rulers during the caliphate period in al- of metaphors. The skillful updating of the topos of the Andalus. Initially he served as vizir, virtually assuming Ubi sunt? by reference to politically prominent persons effective control of the caliphate after the death of Al- of recent memory is but one dimension of Manrique\u2019s H. akam II, who appointed his young son Hisha\u00afm to suc- artistry in handling traditional concepts and poetic ceed him in 976. Allegedly acting on Hisha\u00afm\u2019s behalf, commonplaces. The eulogy of his father (apparently Al-Mans.u\u00afr eliminated all who wished to compete for controversial among early commentators, and ignored power, including his father-in-law Al-Gha\u00af lib, securing by most glossators) draws upon classical archetypes and it all for himself. Al-Mans.u\u00afr remained in power from established medieval concepts of hierarchy and makes 976 to 1002 and was feared and noted for his decisive effective use of the personification of death. action, vigilance, and ruthlessness; it was in 981 that he assumed the sobriquet (laqab) Al-Mans.u\u00af r, \u201cThe Despite the prominence traditionally assigned to the Victorious.\u201d Coplas in Spanish literary studies, the first truly critical edition (which is likely to become the standard text) was The caliph Hisha\u00afm, who was a virtual captive of not published until 1991; the many previous editions Al-Mans.u\u00afr, was a weak individual who allowed his vary, because of problems in the complex transmission weaknesses to be exploited.A brilliant politician,Al-Man- of the text, both in the number of stanzas (forty or forty- s.u\u00afr filled the political vacuum created by the death of two) and in their order. The stanza that begins \u201cSi fuesse Hisha\u00afm\u2019s father, Al-H. akamII.Heruledwithanironhand, en nuestro poder,\u201d in particular, has been variously galvanizing the army and leading daring incursions into placed as number seven or thirteen; the earlier location Christian territory that struck terror into the hearts of is undoubtedly the original. The additional two stanzas the northern populations. His name alone was enough found in many early editions (and in Longfellow\u2019s to make them shudder with fear. As a response to the Christians who, sensing disunity among the Muslims in al-Andalus, had begun to make their first incursions into Muslim territories, Al-Mans.u\u00afr led some fifty expeditions against the Christians. In 997 he struck at their very 442","heart, taking Santiago de Compostela, the alleged burial MARCEL, \u00c9TIENNE place of the apostle James. When he entered Santiago the town was all but deserted, except for a Christian in societal mores. One vida also describes him as \u201cma- monk whom Al-Mans.u\u00afr allowed to go free. Although ligning women and love.\u201d But it is still debated whether Al-Mans.u\u00afr rode his horse into the cathedral to show his Marcabru\u2019s many pronouncements on love in society are contempt for Christianity, the tomb of the apostle was entirely negative or rather idealize love along the lines of not disturbed. He destroyed all the surrounding buildings a Christian or courtly model. His voice is raw and bitter, and took the bells of the cathedral back to C\u00f3rdoba both his images original and forceful, his language aphoristic as booty and as a sign of humiliation. He converted the and difficult. He is sometimes read as a precursor of the bells into lamps for the mosque, where they remained trobar clus school. Aside from his thirty-two sirventes, until the thirteenth century. Besides warrior and states- his lyrics include the romance A la fontana del vergier, man, Al-Mans.u\u00af r was a poet and a builder, and he the crusade song Pax in nomine domini, and the pas- expanded the Great Mosque of C\u00f3rdoba. A devout torela Autrier jost\u2019 una sebissa. Marcabru\u2019s thematic religious man, he publicly abjured philosophy and sci- and stylistic influence on subsequent troubadour song ence by burning the books in Al-H. akam II\u2019s library was massive and pervasive. that dealt with these subjects, and always carried with him a Qu\u2019ra\u00af n that was copied out in his own hand. Further Reading Whenever the name of Allah was uttered in his pres- ence, he never failed to repeat it. If tempted to act Marcabru. Po\u00e9sies compl\u00e8tes du troubadour Marcabru, ed. Jean- in an impious way, he was reputed always to have Marie-Lucien Dejeanne. Toulouse: Privat, 1909. resisted temptation. Nevertheless, he was known to have enjoyed all pleasures\u2014even wine, which he Harvey, Ruth E. The Troubadour Marcabru and Love. London: failed to renounce until two years before his death. Westfield College, 1989. In 991, virtually ignoring Hisha\u00afm, he made his eigh- Pirot, Fran\u00e7ois. \u201cBibliographie comment\u00e9e du troubadour Marca- teen-year-old son \u2018Abd al- Ma\u00aflik chamberlain, and later bru.\u201d Moyen \u00e2ge 73 (1967): 87\u2013126. [\u201cMise \u00e0 jour,\u201d by Ruth E. designated \u2018Abd al- Ma\u00aflik as his successor. Al-Mans.u\u00afr Harvey and Simon Gaunt. Moyen \u00e2ge 94 (1988): 425\u201355.] died in 1002 while on an expedition against the Chris- tians. His other son, Al-Muzaffar, succeeded him, but Thiolier-M\u00e9jean, Suzanne. Les po\u00e9sies satiriques et morales died six years later. Al-Muzaffar was briefly succeeded des troubadours du XIIe si\u00e8cle \u00e0 la fin du XIIIe si\u00e8cle. Paris: by his brother, \u2018Abd al-Rahma\u00afn, known as Sanchuelo, Nizet, 1978. who conspired to grasp the title of caliph for himself. The death of Al-Mans.u\u00afr was followed by a crisis of Roy S. Rosenstein authority and struggles among his family; Hisha\u00afm II, the grandson of \u2018Abd al-Rahma\u00afn III, who was inca- MARCEL, \u00c9TIENNE pable of ruling; and several other contenders, including (1310\u20131358) Al-Mahdi, who eventually seized power. Al-Mans.u\u00afr\u2019s biography, al-Ma\u2019a\u00afthir al-\u2018A\u00af miriyyah was written by A prosperous Parisian draper who, as pr\u00e9v\u00f4t des march- Husayn Ibn \u2018A\u00af sim at the end of the eleventh century. ands, led a rebellion against the monarchy in 1357\u201358. Born into a less wealthy cadet branch of a large and Further Reading influential family, Marcel was successful in business, a supplier for the royal household, and a respected figure Chejne, A. G. Muslim Spain: Its History and Culture. Minne- in Paris by the late 1340s. He was elected pr\u00e9v\u00f4t in 1354. apolis, 1974. Connected by kinship or marriage to many Parisians who had gained wealth and sometimes ennoblement in E. Michael Gerli royal service, risking disgrace and destitution for cor- rupt practices but often regaining royal favor, Marcel MARCABRU (fl. 1130\u201349) was perhaps too cautious or too honest to follow their example, and he increasingly resented these rich royal Little can be said for certain about the origins of the officers from his own circle. troubadour Marcabru. Relying in part on the lyrics, his two vidas are probably right to describe him as an early In December 1355, the Estates General met in Paris, Gascon singer of low birth. Evidence in the songs ties and Marcel became the spokesman for the towns of him to courts in southern France and Spain, where he Languedoil, as the assembly worked out an ambitious was evidently a jongleur. In some forty-two surviving plan to raise a large tax to support the army, in exchange lyrics, Marcabru is preoccupied largely with social satire for governmental reforms and a return to stable currency. and moral allegory. He vehemently denounces a decline Marcel and the Parisians were then staunch supporters of John II in his campaign against the kings of England and Navarre, who had claims to the French throne and sought to partition the realm. By May 1356, however, the tax plan was failing, and without adequate revenues for his troops John II resumed manipulating the currency and restored to power the officials he had agreed to dismiss. 443","MARCEL, \u00c9TIENNE Marchetto made fundamental contributions to the theories of mode, chromaticism, and tuning in Lu- These actions caused Marcel to break with the king, no cidarium, and to the theory or mensuration in Pomerium longer providing him with Parisian troops. When John and Brevis compilatio. The theory of mode involves the met defeat and capture at Poitiers in September, he had classification of plainchant melodies by final (a sort of no bourgeois troops but relied solely on nobles. keynote), range, scale structure, and melodic articula- tion. This classification is crucial for the correlation of In the last months of 1356, Marcel seems to have (among other sorts of pieces) recitation tones for the become a partisan of Charles the Bad, the rebellious king psalms with the antiphons that frame them. Whereas of Navarre. An inflammatory Navarrese partisan, Robert traditional modal theory had stressed final and range as Le Coq, dominated the Estates that met after Poitiers, determinants of mode, Marchetto stressed scale structure and the urban representatives, led by Marcel, lent at and articulation; this change of perspective, along with least tacit support to his demands. In December, Marcel his development of the concept of modal mixture, en- organized his first large Parisian street demonstration abled the classification of melodies that had earlier been against the government. He made frequent use of such dismissed as anomalous. Marchetto\u2019s modal doctrine intimidating tactics in subsequent months. spread through Italy and beyond during the next 200 years and became the foundation of the modal theory The Estates obtained a sweeping ordinance of reform of polyphonic music during the Renaissance. in March 1357, but when they failed repeatedly to de- liver the taxes needed to prosecute the war, the govern- Earlier theories of melody based on hexachords (six- ment ceased to feel bound by the reforms. Marcel and note ut-re-mi-fa-sol-la prototypes) and their connection the Parisian crowd became increasingly intimidating, through a process called mutation allowed only for and in February 1358 they murdered two military com- diatonic progressions; though they served plainchant manders in the presence of the dauphin Charles, thereby melodies well, these theories failed the chromatic pro- alienating the nobles who had originally spearheaded gressions (e.g., progressions directly from c-natural the reform movement. Marcel and his followers became to c-sharp) favored by Italian composers of the early increasingly radical in their hostility to nobles and gave fourteenth century. Marchetto developed a theory to some support to the Jacquerie of late May. The dauphin, accommodate such progressions and coined the term meanwhile, left Paris in March and began to rally noble \u201cpermutation\u201d for the hexachord connections they support. Marcel failed in his effort to organize a league entail; though the term gained a certain currency in of towns to oppose them, and Paris became increasingly music theory of the fourteenth century, it disappeared isolated. At the end of July, one of the citizens murdered as fifteenth-century composers abandoned chromatic Marcel, paving the way for the dauphin\u2019s triumphant progressions. return to the capital. Though he espoused the traditional so-called Pytha- See also Charles II the Bad gorean tuning system, in which all perfect fifths are pure, Marchetto modified the system by describing the slight Further Reading raising of sharped notes in certain contrapuntal contexts, a process that increases the harmonic piquancy of some Avout, Jacques d\u2019. Le meurtre d\u2019\u00c9tienne Marcel. Paris: Gal- combinations of notes and makes them seem to drive limard, 1960. toward notes of resolution; this procedure has important implications for the performance of fourteenth-century Cazelles, Raymond. \u00c9tienne Marcel: champion de l\u2019unit\u00e9 fran- music. Marchetto\u2019s \u201cfifths\u201d of whole tones must surely \u00e7aise. Paris: Tallandier, 1984. be taken as rough approximations rather than precise measurements; nonetheless, the concept of fractional John Bell Henneman, Jr. division of whole tones represents a crucial step in the abandonment of the arithmetic strictures of the Pythagor- MARCHETTO DA PADOVA ean system, in which equal division of the whole tone (early 14th century) was conceptually impossible. This step was necessary for the eventual development of equal temperament. Marchetto da Padova (Marchetus de Padua) was the most important and most influential music theorist in The thirteenth century had seen far-reaching devel- Italy during his time. Documents at the cathedral of opments in the theory of mensural notation, a theory Padua attest to his presence as a teacher in 1305\u20131307. which Franco of Cologne codified late in the century. Three treatises of his survive: Lucidarium in arte musice Franco based his system on a note value called the plane (Cesena and Verona, 1317 or 1318), Pomerium in breve (corresponding roughly to a measure in modern arte musice mensurate (Cesena, later than Lucidarium notation) that was divisible only into thirds at primary but no later than 1319), and Brevis compilatio in arte and secondary levels; Franco worked out elaborate rules musice mensurate pro rudibus et modernis (later than Pomerium). An acrostic in the text of the motet Ave regina celoruml Mater innocencie identifies Marchetto as its author. 444","for notating rhythms within these limitations. A handful MARGARET OF CORTONA, SAINT of theoretical and practical sources from around 1300 documents attempts to expand Franco\u2019s system, but the Pirrotta, Nino. \u201cMarchettus de Padua and the Italian Ars Nova.\u201d earliest comprehensive treatise to succeed in doing so Musica Disciplina, 9, 1955, pp. 57\u201371. was Marchetto\u2019s Pomerium, which describes primary and secondary divisions of the breve into two or three Rahn, Jay. \u201cMarchetto\u2019s Theory of Commixture and Interrup- parts and tertiary division into two parts, resulting in tions.\u201d Music Theory Spectrum, 9, 1987, pp. 117\u2013135. divisions of the breve into two, three, four, six, eight, nine, or twelve parts, which can then be combined in Ristory, Heinz. Post-franconische Theorie und Fr\u00fch\u2013Trecento: various ways, even involving syncopation within and Die Petrus de Cruce\u2013Neuerungen und ihre Bedeutung f\u00fcr die between breve units. Pomerium became the foundation italienische Mensuralnotenschrift zu Beginn des 14. Jahrhun- of Italian mensural theory of the fourteenth century, derts. Europ\u00e4\u00fcsche Hochschufschriften, Series 36; Musicol- and it sheds light as well on the early stage of French ogy, 26. Frankfurt and New York: Peter Lang, 1988. mensural notation, a system that coexisted with the Italian and eventually supplanted it. Strunk, Oliver. \u201cIntorno a Marchetto da Padova.\u201d Rassegna Musicale, 20, 1950, pp. 312\u2013315. (Trans., \u201cOn the Date of Further Reading Marchetto da Padova.\u201d In Oliver Strunk. Essays on Music in the Western World. New York: Norton, 1974, pp. 39\u201343.) Editions Vecchi, Giuseppe. \u201cSu la composizione del Pomerium di Mar- Coussemaker, Edmond de, ed. Scriptorum de musica medii aevi chetto da Padova e la Brevis compilatio.\u201d Quadrivium, 1, 1956, nova series, Vol. 3. Paris: Durand, 1869. (Reprint, Hildesheim: pp. 153\u2013205. (Includes Brevis compilatio, pp. 177\u2013205.) Olms, 1963. Includes Brevis compilatio, 1\u201312.) Jan Herlinger Gallo, F. Alberto, and Kurt von Fischer, eds. Italian Sacred Music. Polyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century, 12. Monaco: MARGARET OF CORTONA, SAINT \u00c9ditions de I\u2019Oiseau-Lyre, 1972. (Includes Ave regina celo- (c. 1247\u20131297) ruml Mater innocencie.) Margaret of Cortona was a penitent and mystic. Her Gerbert, Martin, ed. Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra Legenda, the most authoritative account of her life, potissimum, Vol. 3. Saint Blasien, 1784. (Reprint, Hildesheim: begins like a tragic romance: Margaret, the beautiful Olms, 1963. Includes Lucidarium, 64\u2013121; and Pomerium, daughter of a peasant farmer in Laviano, ran away at 121\u2013188.) sixteen with a nobleman who promised to marry her but did not. They lived together for nine years and had Herlinger, Jan, ed. The Lucidarium of Marchetto of Padua: A a son, but then Margaret\u2019s lover was killed, and she was Critical Edition, Translation, and Commentary. Chicago, Ill., shocked into repentance. She left all her possessions and London: University of Chicago Press, 1985. and tried to return home, asking forgiveness. When her father and stepmother turned her away, she and her Vecchi, Giuseppe, ed. Marcheti de Padua Pomerium, Corpus child found refuge in Cortona with two gentlewomen Scriptorum de Musica, 6. Rome: American Institute of Mu- who were associated with the Franciscan community sicology, 1961. there. A few years later Margaret was admitted to the Franciscan-sponsored Order of Penitents (which later Critical Studies became the third order). She spent the rest of her life as a humble penitent in Cortona, enduring extreme Berger, Karol. Musica Ficta: Theories of Accidental Inflections deprivations to atone for her sins and devoting her time in Vocal Polyphony from Marchetto da Padova to Gioseffo to charity, peacemaking, and intense periods of prayer Zarlino. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. and meditation. By the time she died, local belief in her sainthood was so strong that miraculous cures were Gallo, F. Alberto. \u201cMarchetus in Padua und die \u2018franco-vene- spontaneously reported at her tomb. Despite repeated tische\u2019 Musik des fr\u00fchen Trecento.\u201d Archiv f\u00fcr Musikwis- petitions to the papacy, however, annual celebration of senschaft, 31, 1974, pp. 42\u201356. (Includes Ave regina celoruml her feast day (22 February) in Cortona was not officially Mater innocencie.) authorized until 1515, and her actual canonization was delayed until 1728. Herlinger, Jan. \u201cFractional Divisions of the Whole Tone.\u201d Music Theory Spectrum, 3, 1981a, pp. 74\u201383. The early documents about Margaret raise tantaliz- ing questions because they speak with multiple and \u2014\u2014. \u201cMarchetto\u2019s Division of the Whole Tone.\u201d Journal of the sometimes clashing voices. Although her Legenda is American Musicologkal Society, 34, 1981b, pp. 193\u2013216. attributed to the Franciscan friar Giunta Bevegnati, who served as one of her confessors and eventually \u2014\u2014. \u201cWhat Trecento Music Theory Tells Us.\u201d In Explora- compiled most of the text, in reality it has several layers tions in Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Essays in Honor of of authorship: Margaret recounted her visions while Fra Leonard B. Meyer, ed. Eugene Narmour and Ruth A. Solie. Giunta took notes; another priest filled this role during Festschrift Series, 7. Stuyvesant, N.Y.: Pendragon, 1988, the last seven years of her life, when Fra Giunta was pp. 177\u2013197. absent from Cortona; other witnesses supplied supple- mentary information; and the final text was reviewed and \u2014\u2014. \u201cMarchetto\u2019s Influence: The Manuscript Evidence.\u201d In Music Theory and Its Sources: Antiquity and the Middle Ages, ed. Andr\u00e9 Barbera. Notre Dame Conferences in Medieval Studies, 1. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1990, pp. 235\u2013258. Martinez\u2013G\u00f6llner, Marie Louise. \u201cMarchettus of Padua and Chromaticism.\u201d L\u2019Ars Nova Italiana del Trecento, 3, 1970, pp. 187\u2013202. 445","MARGARET OF CORTONA, SAINT the miracles began around her tomb, San Basilio reaped the most obvious benefits. In the next few decades, this further edited by both civil and ecclesiastical officials. church acquired an impressive new sanctuary, suitable Recovering Margaret\u2019s authentic voice and experience for welcoming pilgrims, and a rich endowment based from such a composite text may be impossible, although on bequests. Civic leaders invested generously in the feminist scholars have begun to try. What does emerge expansion and adornment of San Basilio (eventu- clearly from the Legenda and other early sources is the ally renamed Santa Margherita) and the promotion of struggle that went on after her death over the right to Margaret\u2019s cult, and the investment evidently paid off display her relics and claim the benefits of her patron- in terms of Cortona\u2019s increasing prestige and political age. Recent studies have identified three main parties in independence. The Franciscans were shut out until the this struggle: Franciscan friars; civic leaders of Cortona; end of the fourteenth century, when town leaders invited and adherents of San Basilio, the church that became them to replace the secular clergy who had hitherto Margaret\u2019s shrine. administered the new church and Margaret\u2019s shrine. But the town itself retained\u2014and still retains\u2014legal In the Legenda itself, the strongest voice is Francis- ownership of Margaret\u2019s body. can. Indeed, the text recounts numerous visions in which Christ expresses special favor toward the Franciscans, An ambitious study by Cannon and Vauchez (1999) reminds Margaret that he has personally entrusted her enriches and complicates this picture by reminding us to their keeping, and urges her always to obey them. that the contest over Margaret\u2019s cult was partly about The Legenda also holds Margaret up as an example the right to define the religious and symbolic identity of for other Franciscan teftiaries to follow and portrays Cortona\u2019s patron saint. This issue mattered greatly not her, in effect, as a testimonial to the virtues that a lay only to the Franciscans, but also to the civic authorities penitent could acquire under Franciscan guidance: of Cortona and certain subgroups within the town, in- humility, self-discipline, reverence for the clergy and cluding the local clergy and the next generation of male the eucharist, perfect orthodoxy (always a key question and female terriaries. The different ways in which these about uncloistered women), and even the restoration Cortonese groups reconstructed Margaret\u2019s identity, in of virginity. As Schlager (1998) has suggested, these the light of their own corporate traditions and priorities, emphases may have been chosen partly to overcome are barely suggested in the Legenda and other written the friars\u2019 own resistance to the papal mandates that sources. But, as Cannon demonstrates, a great deal can made them responsible for potentially dangerous female still be learned about them by studying what remains of penitents. the paintings and sculpture that were added to the church of Santa Margherita in the fourteenth century to honor Other portions of the Legenda\u2014including practi- this not yet canonized saint. More work will surely be cally all the miracle stories, which were originally done with the wealth of fascinating detail that Cannon omitted from Fra Giunta\u2019s account and appended in and Vauchez have brought to light. the last chapter\u2014link Margaret more closely with lo- cal needs and aspirations in Cortona. And Margaret\u2019s Further Reading own reported words and actions sometimes support the local agendas too. In the decade before her death, she Benvenuti Papi, Anna. \u201cIn castro poenitentiae\u201d: Santit\u00e0 e distanced herself somewhat from the Franciscan friars societ\u00e0 femminile nell\u2019Italia medievale. Italia Sacra, 45. by moving to a solitary cell near San Basilio, which was Rome: Herder, 1990. (Collection of Benvenuti\u2019s articles that then just a small secular church in poor condition, and includes her most detailed and important pieces on Margaret choosing its priest, ser Badia, as her final confessor. She of Cortona.) supported this church by obtaining an indulgence for those who helped with its rebuilding, and she founded \u2014\u2014. \u201cMendicant Friars and Female Pinzochere in Tuscany: a charitable confraternity whose first chaplain was ser From Social Marginality to Models of Sanctity.\u201d In Women Badia. When she died, it was San Basilio that received and Religion in Medieval and Renaissance Italy, ed. Daniel her body for burial, although the Franciscans insisted Bornstein and Roberto Rusconi, trans. Margery J. Schneider. for decades that she had made a permanent commitment Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1996, pp. 84\u2013103. to them. Civic leaders asserted the town\u2019s own claim to (Overview suggesting societal patterns; the original title of her body, arguing that she had chosen to live in Cortona the edited collection was Mistiche e devote nell\u2019Italia tardo- and had contributed significantly to the general welfare medievale.) by founding a hospital for the poor, resolving conflicts between rival factions, and negotiating an agreement Bevegnati, Giunta. Leggenda delld vita e dei miracoli di Santa that persuaded the warlike bishop of Arezzo to cancel Margherita da Cortona, trans. and ed. Eliodoro Mariani, an impending attack. Vicenza: LIEF, 1978. (With historical notes.) As Bornstein (1993) has shown, using archival sourc- \u2014\u2014. Legenda de vita et miraculis beatae Margaritae de Cortona, es that survive in Cortona, the contest over Margaret\u2019s ed. Fortunato Iozzelli. Bibliotheca Franciscans Ascetica Medii relics had economic and political ramifications. When Aevi, 13. Grottaferrata: Ediciones Collegii S. Bonaventu- rae ad Claras Aquas, 1997. (Published in Rome. Critical edition of the Latin text, with detailed discussions of its 446","structure, genre, sources, and major themes, plus extensive MARGRETHE I bibliography.) \u2014\u2014. Life and Miracles of Saint Margaret of Cortona, trans. that opened the way for recognition of Albrecht\u2019s rights, Thomas Renna. (Forthcoming from Franciscan Institute.) without detracting from Olaf\u2019s, by submitting the issue Bornstein, Daniel. \u201cThe Uses of the Body: The Church and the to arbitration by a number of German princes. Margrethe Cult of Santa Margherita da Cortona.\u201d Church History, 62, thwarted this accord by claiming that all arbitration had 1993, pp. 163\u2013177. to follow Danish rules of succession, of which there Cannon, Joanna, and Andr\u00e9 Vauchez. Margaret of Cortona and were none, since Danish kings were elected freely. the Lorenzetti: Sienese Art and the Cult of a Holy Woman in The death of Emperor Charles in November 1378 and Medieval Tuscany. University Park: Pennsylvania State Uni- of Duke Albrecht in February 1379 left Margrethe to versity Press, 1999. (See especially parts 1 and 5.) skirmish only with Albrecht of Sweden. King H\u00e1kon \u201cMargherita da Cortona.\u201d In Bibliotheca sanctorum, Vol. 8. died in the late summer of 1380, only forty years old. Rome: Istituto Giovanni XXIII nella Pontificia Universit\u00e0 The next summer, Olaf was acclaimed with all rights Lateranense, 1961\u20131971, cols. 759\u2013773. as hereditary king of Norway. Schlager, Bernard. \u201cFoundresses of the Franciscan Life: Umili- ana Cerchi and Margaret of Cortona.\u201d Viator, 29, 1998, pp. In 1386, diplomacy separated the Holsteinians from 141\u2013166. the Mecklenburg party, albeit at the cost of concessions regarding tile status of the duchy of Schleswig under Sherry Reames the Crown, but, as usual, with an enfeoffment of doubt- ful character, supplemented with clauses that cried out MARGRETHE I for interpretation. In Sweden, Albrecht gradually lost (1353\u2013October 27, 1412) control over the main fiefs to the councilors. Details of their contacts with Margrethe are not known. But Queen of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, Margrethe Olaf\u2019s sudden death on August 3, 1387, for the moment was the daughter of King Valdemar IV Atterdag (\u201cever- upset all possible plans. Then, on August 10, Margrethe day\u201d) of Denmark and Queen Helvig. At the age of six, established herself as \u201cauthorized lady and husband and she was betrothed, and at the age of ten married, to King guardian of all of the realm of Denmark,\u201d until a new H\u00e1kon of Norway, son of King Magnus of Sweden of king could be elected according to her proposal. The the Folkungs dynasty. Rebellion in Sweden brought following year, she performed a similar \u201ccoup d\u2019\u00e9tat\u201d Albrecht of Mecklenburg to the throne, but H\u00e1kon kept in Norway, and managed to secure similar recognition a firm grip on the western parts of the country. Thus, from a number of Swedish magnates. The resulting war by marriage, Margrethe acquired the additional titles of with King Albrecht was decided on February 24, 1389, queen of Norway and Sweden. The upbringing of the by her victory at Axevall and \u00c5sle, where Albrecht was young queen was overseen by the Swedish noblewoman captured while the German faction still kept Stockholm. Merethe Ulfsdotter, together with that of Merethe\u2019s The same year, Margrethe adopted her sister\u2019s maternal own daughter, and \u201cboth often tasted the same birch.\u201d grandson, Bugislav of Pomerania, now renamed Erik, Merethe herself was of notable birth; her father was a who would become king of all three kingdoms. Ev- Swedish nobleman, and her mother St. Birgitta of Vad- erything seemed settled, when a war of revenge with stena. The young Queen Margrethe was from the very Mecklenburg broke out. The peace in 1395 secured the beginning made familiar with current political themes, release of Albrecht, who put up Stockholm as a pledge and was raised in an environment that doubtless shaped for the release sum. As this sum was not paid, Stock- her opinion of the possibilities for women in society. holm finally fell into the hands of Margrethe by 1398. Margrethe had already instituted her famous Union of In 1370, around Christmas, she gave birth to her only Kalmar the year before. The resulting document, when child, \u00d3l\u00e1f (\u00d3l\u00e1fr), the legitimate heir to the crown of compared with the coronation document for Erik, sug- Norway and, more or less, Sweden. In Denmark, the gests that the outcome was not fully in accord with her problem of succession was deliberately kept undecided. ideas of monarchial reign. This may explain why the Margrethe\u2019s rebellious brother, Christoffer, had died, document was written only as a semivalid paper draft, and King Valdemar had made vague promises to the son kept secret in Denmark. The stipulated parchment copies of Margrethe\u2019s sister Ingeborg, Albrecht of Mecklenburg to be sent to all three countries were never made, but (not to be confused with King Albrecht of Sweden, his the document was later used to curb the government of father\u2019s brother). When King Valdemar died on October Erik of Pomerania. The lack of a son and the varying 24, 1375, the Danish Council was faced with a difficult rules of succession in the three kingdoms would eventu- choice, since the Mecklenburg candidate was heavily ally prove to be the ultimate obstacle for Erik and thus supported by the German emperor, Charles IV. Mar- for the life work of Margrethe. Nevertheless, the union grethe acted swiftly, as if she were the recognized ruler between Denmark and Norway lasted until 1814, and of the realm. After many negotiations, the Danes elected with Sweden until the 1520s, indirectly giving fuel to Olaf king in May 1376. But under the military threat the wars of the 17th and 18th centuries, and playing a by Albrecht, an agreement was reached in September 447","MARGRETHE I Devil, and eucharistic visions and miracles. Marguerite\u2019s christocentric mysticism includes not only Carthusian major role in the politics of Scandinavia from the 19th but also Franciscan and Cistercian elements. Some let- century to the present day. ters by Marguerite also survive. Further Reading Further Reading Literature Marguerite d\u2019Oingt. Les \u0153uvres de Marguerite d\u2019Oingt, ed. Antonin Duraffour, Pierre Gardette, and Paulette Durdilly. Erslev, Kristian. Danmarks Historie under Dronning Margrethe Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1965. og hendes n\u00e6rmeste Efterf\u00f8lgere 1375\u20131448. 1. Dronning Margrethe og Kahmarunionens Grundl\u00e6sggelse. Copenha- \u2014\u2014. The Writings of Margaret of Oingt, Medieval Prioress and gen: Erslev, 1882. Mystic, trans. Renate Blumenfeld-Kosinski. Newbury-port: Focus Information Group, 1990. L\u00f6nnroth, Erik. Sverige och Kalmarunionen 1397\u20131457. Gothen- burg: Elander, 1934; rpt.: Akademif\u00f6rlaget, 1969. Dinzelbacher, Peter. \u201cMargarete von Oingt und ihre Pagina medi- tationum.\u201d Analecta cartusiana 16 (1988): 69\u2013100. Linton, Michael Drottning Margareta. Fullm\u00e4ktig fru och r\u00e4tt husbonde. Studier i kalmarunionens f\u00f6rhistoria. Studia Histor- Maisonneuve, Roland. \u201cL\u2019exp\u00e9rience mystique et visionnaire de ica Gothoburgensia, 12. Gothenburg: Akademif\u00f6rlaget, 1971. Marguerite d\u2019Oingt (d. 1310), moniale chartreuse.\u201d Analecta cartusiana 55 (1981): 81\u2013102. Christensen, Aksel E. Kalmarunionen ognordisk politik 1319\u2013 1439. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1980 [with extensive refer- Ulrike Wiethaus ences to scholarly literature]. MARGUERITE OF PROVENCE H\u00f8rby, Kai. Danmarks historie. 2.1: Tiden 1340\u20131648. Copen- (ca. 1221\u20131295) hagen: Gyldendal, 1980 [with extensive bibliography in vols. 2.1 and 2.2]. Marguerite was the eldest of four daughters of Count Raymond-Berenguer V of Provence. In 1234, at the age Albrectsen, Esben. Herred\u00f8mmet over S\u00f8nderjylland 1375\u20131404. of twelve or thirteen, she became queen of France by Studier over Hertugd\u00f8mmets lensforhold og indre opbygn- her marriage to Louis IX. The wedding and her corona- ing p\u00e5 dronning Margrethes tid. Copenhagen: Den danske tion as queen were celebrated at the cathedral of Sens. historiske forening, 1981. Eleven children were eventually born to the couple. The marriage was difficult in a number of respects. From the Etting, Vivian. Margrethe den F\u00f8rste. Copenhagen: Fogtdal, 1986 beginning, Marguerite resented and was resented by [lavishly illustrated]. her mother-in-law, Blanche of Castile; yet she admired Blanche\u2019s influence with Louis. She tried to achieve S\u00f8ren Balle the same position with her son, the future Philip III, but provoked her husband to intervene and have the young MARGUERITE D\u2019OINGT Philip\u2019s ill-considered oath to obey her until the age of (ca. 1240\u20131310) thirty quashed. Though Marguerite by no means lacked in courage or ability (e.g., she successfully preserved Marguerite was born to noble parents in the French order in Damietta in Egypt in 1250 at a particularly Beaujolais region. By 1288, she became prioress of the difficult moment in her husband\u2019s first crusade), Louis Carthusian monastery of Poletains at Lyon. Although almost always ignored her political advice. she was never canonized, a popular cult in her honor flourished until the Revolution, and she was revered as After the king\u2019s death in 1270, Marguerite became blessed. Marguerite is the only medieval Carthusian a more active political figure. She was particularly exi- woman writer known to us. The Pagina meditationum, gent\u2014to the point of raising troops\u2014in defending her a response in Latin to a visionary experience during rights in Provence, where her husband\u2019s brother, Charles Mass, interweaves liturgical sections with reflections of Anjou, maintained his political authority and control on Christ\u2019s Passion and the Last Judgment. In a remark- of property after his wife\u2019s (her sister\u2019s) death, contrary able passage, Marguerite develops the image of Christ to the intentions of the old count, who had died in 1245. as a woman undergoing the suffering of labor. The Philip III had his hands full in restraining her. Only his Speculum, written in Franco-Proven\u00e7al and dedicated death in 1285 and Charles of Anjou\u2019s in the same year to Hugo, prior of Vallebonne, describes three visions resolved the situation. At the behest of the new king, and their meaning. In the first, Christ shows her a book Philip IV, she accepted an assignment of income from with white, black, red, and golden letters symbolizing Anjou as compensation for recognizing the preeminent his suffering. In the second, the book opens and reveals a rights of Charles of Anjou\u2019s heirs in Provence. Her last vision of Paradise and the heavens, whence all goodness years were spent in doing pious work, including found- emanates. In the third, she is shown the glorified body ing in 1289 the Franciscan nunnery of Lourcines, which of Christ and meditates on its meaning for Christian eventually became a focal point of the cult of her late spirituality. Marguerite\u2019s final work is the biography of B\u00e9atrice of Ornacieux (ca. 1260\u20131303\/09), a stigmatized nun at the charterhouse of Parmenie, whose cult was recognized by Pope Pius IX in 1869. Also written in the vernacular, the biography stresses Beatrice\u2019s intense mystical experiences, including frequent apparitions, the gift of tears, severe acts of penance to ward off the 448","husband, Louis. Although she does not seem to have MARIE DE FRANCE testified for her husband\u2019s canonization, Marguerite was active in the propagation of his memory: her confessor, Further Reading Guillaume de Saint-Pathus, for example, wrote an im- portant and reverential biography of the king. Marguerite Marguerite Porete. Le mirouer des simple ames anienties, ed. died on December 30, 1295, nearly two years before the Romana Guamieri and Paul Verdeyen. CCCM 69. Turnhout: process of canonization was completed. Brepols, 1986. See also Blanche of Castile \u2014\u2014. The Mirror of Simple Souls, trans. Ellen L. Babinsky. New York: Paulist, 1993. Further Reading Lerner, Robert E. The Heresy of the Free Spirit in the Later Middle Le mariage de saint Louis \u00e0 Sens en 1234. Sens: Mus\u00e9es de Ages. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972. Sens, 1984. Verdeyen, Paul. \u201cLe proc\u00e8s d\u2019inquisition contre Marguerite Porete Siv\u00e9ry, G\u00e9rard. Marguerite de Provence: une reine au temps des et Guiard de Cressonessart (1309\u20131310).\u201d Revue d\u2019histoire cath\u00e9drales. Paris: Fayard, 1987. eccl\u00e9siastique 81 (1986): 47\u201394. William Chester Jordan Ellen L. Babinsky MARGUERITE PORETE MARIE DE FRANCE (d. 1310) (fl. 1160\u20131210) Biographical information about Marguerite Porete Recognized today among the major poets of the renais- comes from inquisitorial documents, which tell us that sance of the 12th century, Marie de France was equally she was a b\u00e9guine from Hainaut. Quite possibly, she admired by her contemporaries at court, according to was a solitary itinerant who expounded her teachings to the testimony of Denis Piramus in his Vie seint Edmunt interested listeners. She wrote the Mirouer des simples le rei. Three works of the period are signed \u201cMarie\u201d ames anienties in Old French sometime between 1296 and are usually attributed to the same author: the Lais, and 1306. Since there is no indication that someone else the Fables, and the Espurgatoire saint Patrice. In the wrote the text of the Mirouer from the author\u2019s dictation, epilogue to the Fables, the author adds to her name si we can surmise that the author wrote the treatise herself sui de France (l. 4). This is probably an indication of and that she was well educated. continental birth, a fact to be remarked if, as seems likely, she was living in England. A number of identi- The text received approvals from three Orthodox ties have been proposed for Marie, none of which can Church leaders, one of whom was Godfrey of Fontaines, be established with certainty: the natural daughter a scholastic at Paris between 1285 and 1306, who also of Geoffroi Plantagen\u00eat (and half-sister of Henry II), counseled the author to use caution in her expressions. abbess of Shaftsbury (1181\u20131216); Marie de Meulan Approval was not universal, however, and the text was or Beaumont, widow of Hugues Talbot and daughter condemned and burned in the author\u2019s presence with of Waleron de Beaumont; and the abbess of Reading the orders not to spread her views under threat of being (the abbey where the Harley 978 manuscript may have turned over to the secular authorities. Marguerite was been copied). Identifying her literary patrons is equally arrested at the end of 1308 and remained in prison for a problematic. The Lais are dedicated to vus, nobles reis year and a half before being condemned to the flames as (l. 43), who may be either Henry II (1133\u20131189), the a relapsed heretic. Despite the condemnation, the Mir- most likely candidate, or his son, Henry theYoung King ouer apparently enjoyed widespread popularity, for in (crowned 1170, d. 1183). The Count William named in addition to copies made of the text in Old French it was the Fables has been linked to a number of prominent translated into Middle English, Italian, and Latin. figures, including William Marshal, William Longsword (the natural son of Henry II), William of Mandeville, The Mirouer is a dialogue among allegorical figures William of Warren, William of Gloucester, and Guil- who represent the nature of the relation between the soul laume de Dampierre. and God. The fundamental structure of the discourse is grounded in traditional Neoplatonic philosophy, and Marie\u2019s works can be dated only approximately with courtly language is used to express theological abstrac- reference to possible patrons and literary influences. The tions. The Mirouer is a theological treatise that analyzes works themselves suggest that Marie knew Wace\u2019s Brut how love in human beings is related to divine love and (1155) and the Roman d\u2019\u00c9n\u00e9as (1160), an undetermined how the human soul by means of this relation may ex- Tristan romance, classical (notably Ovid) and Celtic perience a lasting union of indistinction with God in this sources, but not the romances of Chr\u00e9tien de Troyes. life. The Mirouer is also a handbook, or \u201cmirror,\u201d that The Lais are therefore dated between 1160 and 1170, aims to teach the \u201chearers of the book\u201d about themselves the Fables between 1167 and 1189, and the Espurga- and how to attain union with God. toire after 1189 and probably between 1209 and 1215, since its Latin source, the Tractatus de purgatorio sancti Patricii (in the version of Hugh or Henry of Saltrey), has been placed no earlier than 1208. 449","MARIE DE FRANCE mar (886 lines), Equitan (314), Fresne (518), Bisclavret (318), Lanval (646), Deus amanz (254), Yonec (558), Five manuscripts contain one or more of Marie\u2019s lais; La\u00fcstic (160), Milun (534), Chaitivel (240), Chievrefoil only Harley 978 contains a general prologue, which (118), and Eliduc (1184). As indicated by the consider- presents the twelve lais that follow as a collection spe- able variations in length, the lais offer great diversity, cifically arranged by the author (the same manuscript but they also operate as a collection unified by the also contains a complete collection of the Fables). themes of love and adventure. Indeed, they seem to Marie appears to be the initiator of a narrative genre invite exploration as an open-ended set of theme and that flourished between about 1170 and the late 13th variations, in which Marie reveals the complexities and century. About forty narrative lais are extant. The lyric varieties of human experience, without trying to contain lai, which flourished from the 12th to the 15th century, them within the confines of any single doctrine of love. seems to be an unrelated form. Heroes and heroines, all noble, beautiful, and courteous, are individualized not by psychological development but The prologues and epilogues that frame each of by the situations in which they find themselves. Con- Marie\u2019s tales refer to the lais performed by Breton story- sider the two short anecdotes that constitute La\u00fcstic and tellers in commemoration of past adventures truly lived. Chievrefoil. Both involve a love triangle: married couple Celtic and English place-names and personal names plus lover. Chievrefoil relates an episode in the story of corroborate Marie\u2019s claimed sources: four lais take Tristan and Iseut, a secret reunion of the lovers vouch- place in Brittany, three in Wales, two in both places, and safed during one of Tristan\u2019s returns from exile. Whereas one in an undetermined Bretagne. Marie did not simply Marc here remains ignorant of the tryst, the husband of write down orally circulating stories. Her artfully crafted La\u00fcstic discovers his wife\u2019s nocturnal meetings with her compositions combine the written traditions of Latin lover. Although their affair remains innocent, limited and vernacular writings with the legendary materials to their mutual gaze across facing windows, the angry of Celtic and popular tales. While it may be impossible husband puts an end to their meetings by trapping and to untangle historical reference and literary topos in killing the nightingale the lady claims as reason for her Marie\u2019s repeated claim to retell well-known lais bretons, nightly visits to the window. When the lady sends to her her indications suggest a process of transmission that lover the nightingale\u2019s body wrapped in an embroidered begins with an adventure heard by Bretons, who then cloth, along with a messenger to explain the events, he compose a lai, sung with harp accompaniment. Marie has a golden box made, adorned with precious stones. has heard the music and the adventure, the latter perhaps The nightingale\u2019s body is placed in it, and the reliquary told as a prelude to the song. She then tells us the adven- accompanies him wherever he goes\u2014hence the name ture in rhymed octosyllables, the form used also in the of the lai: la\u00fcstic is the Breton word for russignol in Fables and the Espurgatoire, elaborating simultaneously French, nihtegale in English (ll. 3\u20136). its truth, or reisun (cf. the razos in the Proven\u00e7al lyric tradition). The title itself, carefully designated in each The emblem that thus closes the lai figures the end case and sometimes translated into several languages, of the lovers\u2019 meetings, though it may also suggest the guarantees the authenticity of the process. triumph of continued love, however impossible to real- ize: optimistic and pessimistic readings of the ending are The general prologue opens with a traditional exor- both possible. The emblem of Chievrefoil also testifies dium on the obligation of writers to share their talents to the enduring nature of Tristan and Iseut\u2019s love: just as and then cites the authority of Priscian to describe the the hazelwood dies (so it was thought) if the honeysuckle relationship between ancient and modern writers: do growing around it was cut away, so the two lovers would philosopher-poets hide a surplus of meaning to be die if separated: \u201cBele amie, si est de nus: ne vus sanz found later in the obscurities of their writing, or do later, mei, ne jeo sanz vus\u201d (ll. 77\u201378). But while that phrasing more subtle poets add it to their predecessors\u2019 works? is negative, what we see realized in this episode is the Scholars have variously interpreted these verses (9\u201322): reunion of the lovers thanks to the piece of hazelwood we are drawn into the problem of interpretation at the that Tristan prepares as a signal to Iseut, so that the queen very moment the subject of glossing is introduced by will know he must be hiding in the woods near the route Marie\u2019s authorial persona. She then explains the nature of her cortege. Whereas the emblem of La\u00fcstic ends the of her project: not a translation from the Latin as many lovers\u2019 meetings, Chievrefoil\u2019s emblem initiates Tristan have done, but something new, demanding hard labor and Iseut\u2019s reunion, as it symbolizes their love. And just and sleepless nights, the writing down in rhyme of those as the repetition of characters, scenes, and situations in adventures commemorated in lais. Hoping to receive La\u00fcstic and Chievrefoil creates doubles, echoes, and great joy in return, Marie then offers her collection to contrasts in positive and negative variations at all levels an unnamed king. She names herself in the following of the text, so the tendency to present and explore dif- verses, printed by modern editors as the prologue to ferent combinations of the same materials characterizes Guigemar (ll. 3\u20134) but set off in the manuscript only by a large capital indicating a new section (G1). The twelve lais that follow in Harley 978 are Guige- 450","the links between the lais and invites readers to analyze MARIE DE FRANCE their interactions. The arrangement of twelve lais in a collection considerably increases the potential for classes: social hierarchy should be maintained for the meaning, however elusive that meaning remains in the sake of harmony; people should accept their place, as beautiful obscurities of Marie\u2019s text, and begins to give well as their responsibilities. Marie\u2019s concern for justice her lais the weight and proportion we normally associ- in terms of feudal loyalty between lord and vassal is ate with romance. demonstrated in a number of fables; elsewhere appears a more specific regard for mistreatment of the poor, as The brevity of most lais limits their plot development in Fable 2, De lupo et agno, in which the wolf invents to a single anecdote or episode, although in the mid- a series of false accusations to justify killing the lamb. length and longer lais, especially Guigemar and Eliduc, Marie\u2019s moral targets the abuse of rich robber barons, there may be a fuller elaboration as the characters\u2019 viscounts, and judges who exploit those in their power love develops through a series of episodes. The type with trumped-up charges. of adventure that appears in the lais differs somewhat from that of romance: it does not involve a quest, even Extant in a single manuscript, the Espurgatoire in the longer r\u00e9cits; the hero is more passive and his combines in its over 2,000 lines a variety of materials, experience leads to private fulfillment and happiness; romanesque, hagiographic, and homiletic. In addition no special relationship exists between the hero\u2019s destiny to various anecdotes, the principle narrative concerns and that of his society. the proselytizing efforts of St. Patrick, thanks to whom an entrance to Purgatory for the still-living has been While some lais have marvelous and folktale ele- established in a churchyard, in order to strengthen belief ments that recall their Celtic sources (e.g., Guigemar, in the afterlife. After suitable prayers and instructions, Yonec, Lanval), others remain realistically placed in many have descended to witness the tortures of the the courtly world of the 12th century (Equitan, Fresne, damned and the delights of the saved. Not all have re- Milun, Chaitivel). All explore the intersection of two turned from the perilous journey. The greater part of the planes of existence, where otherness may be magically story follows in detail the preparation and descent of the encountered or simply introduced by the new experience knight Owein. Through a series of diabolical torments, of love. Although efforts to thus categorize the lais often Owein is saved each time when he invokes the name of remain problematic, leading to overlap, omissions, and Jesus. Upon his return, he is confirmed in his knightly the like, they do respond to the sense of intertextual play career, now purified and dedicated to saintly pursuits. that links the lais across echoes and contrasts. The Espurgatoire offers one of the earliest vernacular examples of the same visionary tradition that inspires Marie\u2019s art is as carefully crafted as the precious Dante\u2019s Commedia. reliquary she describes in La\u00fcstic. The economy and brevity of her style are enriched by the subtlety of her See also Dante Alighieri; Gautier d\u2019Arras; narrating voice. Her use of free indirect discourse, in Henry II; Wace particular, allows her to merge her voice with that of her characters, while maintaining the distinctness of both. Further Reading Marie\u2019s literary art, sustained throughout the collection of twelve lais, joins her work to that of the philosopher- Marie de France. Les lais de Marie de France, ed. Jean Rychner. poets, described in the general prologue as worthy of Paris: Champion, 1969. glossing and interpretation. \u2014\u2014. Les fables, ed. and trans. Charles Brucker. Louvain: The twenty-three extant manuscripts of Marie\u2019s Peeters, 1990. Fables, two of which are complete with prologue, epilogue, and 102 fables, attest their popularity. Marie \u2014\u2014. The Lais of Marie de France, trans. Glyn S. Burgess and claims to translate from the English of King Alfred\u2019s Keith Busby. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986. adaptation from Latin. No such translation is known, and Marie may have invented a fictitious source. Her fables \u2014\u2014. Marie de France: Fables, ed. and trans. Harriet Spiegel. derive from the Latin Romulus in combination with other Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987. traditions: some details bring her collection closer to the Greek fables than to the Latin; evidence of oral tradition \u2014\u2014. The Espurgatoire Saint Patriz of Marie de France, with is also apparent. Hers is the first known example of Old a Text of the Latin Original, ed. Thomas Atkinson Jenkins. French Isopets. Each short narrative (eight\u2013124 lines) Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1903. leads to an explicit moral lesson. This framework of moral and social values provides an underlying unity \u2014\u2014. Das Buch vom Espurgatoire s. Patrice der Marie de France for the diversity of the fables. The political stance is und seine Quelle, ed. Karl Warnke. Halle: Niemeyer, 1938. basically conservative, reflecting an aristocratic point of view, but also shows concern for justice available to all \u2014\u2014. The Lais of Marie de France, trans. Robert W. Hanning and Joan Ferrante. New York: Dutton, 1978. \u2014\u2014. The \u201cFables\u201d of Marie de France: An English Translation, trans. Mary Lou Martin. Birmingham: Summa, 1984. Burgess, Glyn S. Marie de France: An Analytic Bibliography. London: Grant and Cutler, 1977; First Supplement, 1985. M\u00e9nard, Philippe. Les lais de Marie de France: contes d\u2019amour et d\u2019aventure au moyen \u00e2ge. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1979. Mickel, Emanuel J., Jr. Marie de France. New York: Twayne, 1974. 451","MARIE DE FRANCE studied theology. His obscure career took many turns: he also was a priest, a physician, and a diplomat. In Sienaert, Edgar. Les lais de Marie de France: du conte merveilleux 1319, he went on an embassy for the Ghibelline lead- \u00e0 la nouvelle psychologique. Paris: Champion, 1978. ers Matreo Visconti and Cangrande della Scala. Among Marsilio\u2019s associates were the astrologer Peter of Abano; Matilda T. Bruckner the humanist Albertino Mussato; the Averroist John of Jandun; and, in later years, William of Ockham. MARIE D\u2019OIGNIES (1177\u20131213) In 1324, in Paris, Marsilio completed his masterwork, Mystic and one of the founding mothers of the b\u00e9guine Defensor pads (The Defender of Peace), which circu- movement. Testimonies of her life were recorded by lated anonymously until his authorship was discovered Jacques de Vitry (ca. 1215) and Thomas de Cantimpr\u00e9 in 1326. Expecting to be condemned as a heretic for his (ca. 1230\/31). antipapal opinions, he took refuge at the court of the pope\u2019s archenemy Lewis of Bavaria, whom he served for Born in Nijvel (Brabant), Marie was married at the the rest of his life. Lewis was guided by Marsilio\u2019s theo- age of fourteen but did not consummate her marriage. ries when he went to Rome in 1327 and was crowned Together with her spouse, she practiced the vita apostolica emperor in the name of the people. Likewise, Lewis and cared for the sick. At the age of thirty, she retired to claimed that the Roman church should be administered a cell at the Augustinian monastery of Aiseau-sur-Sambre by the emperor, and, accordingly, he appointed Marsilio and gained in stature as a spiritual healer and holy woman. as his administrator, with the title of imperial vicar for According to her pupil Jacques deVitry, Marie\u2019s spirituality spiritual affairs in Rome. The emperor could not main- was characterized by eucharistic devotion and christo- tain himself for long in Italy, however, and by 1330 he centrism. She lived a life of strict asceticism, abstained was back in Bavaria. In 1342, Marsilio was still with from sleep and food, and frequently experienced visions, Lewis, serving as his physician and counselor. At this ecstasies, and trances. Her death was an example of a saintly time Marsilio wrote Defensor minor, in which his earlier ars moriendi, surrounded by miracles; most noteworthy work was summarized and extended to prove that the perhaps is her feat of three days of incessant chanting and emperor had jurisdiction over questions of marriage. scriptural exegesis performed during ecstasy. Jacques de Vitry stressed Marie\u2019s allegiance to the church by structur- Marsilio\u2019s central concern was the political power of ing her vita in two parts: Part 1 records the outline of her the papacy, which he, like Dante, saw as the principal life\u2019s journey towards holiness and aspects of saintliness; cause of civil strife in Italy. To restore peace, Dante Part 2 describes her interior life according to the seven sought to revive the Roman empire; Marsilio was gifts of the Holy Spirit. As with other texts of this genre, more realistic. He insisted that the state should control it is difficult to distinguish between Marie d\u2019Oignies as a the church, but he devised a generalized theory of the prototype (exemplum) and her individuality and original state that could fit not only the empire but also national contributions to medieval spirituality. monarchies and even city-states. Thus, his proposals, far from threatening civil governments, offered them control See also Jacques de Vitry over their several churches. Defensor pacis is accord- ingly divided into two principal parts: the first discourse Further Reading (dictio) argues that political power belongs exclusively to the secular state; the second counters the papacy\u2019s Jacques de Vitry. The Life of Marie d\u2019Oignies, trans. Margot H. claims to independent political status and makes the King. Saskatoon: Peregrina, 1986. state the administrator of organized religion. Thomas de Cantimpr\u00e9. Supplement to the Life of Marie Marsilio\u2019s concept of the state is closely modeled on d\u2019Oignies, trans. Hugh Feiss. Saskatoon: Peregrina, 1987. Aristotle\u2019s Politics. The state is a natural phenomenon, arising from man\u2019s nature as a political animal. Gov- Kowalczewski, J. \u201cThirteenth Century Asceticism: Marie ernment exists so that all men may lead the \u201csufficient d\u2019Oignies and Liutgard of Aywi\u00e8res as Active and Passive life,\u201d i.e., \u201clive and live well.\u201d The form of government Ascetics.\u201d Vox benedictina 3 (1986): 20\u201350. is not set by nature, however; instead, a community is formed by the mutual agreement of its members to live \u2014\u2014. The Life of \u201cMarie d\u2019Oignies.\u201d In Medieval Women\u2019s together under laws to which they have consented. Thus, Visionary Literature, ed. Elizabeth Petroff. Oxford: Oxford for Marsilio, the foundation of all government is the \u201chu- University Press, 1986, pp. 179\u201384. man legislator,\u201d i.e., the people of the community who make the laws. Marsilio is not a democrat; he realizes Ulrike Wiethaus that not everyone is fit to participate in legislation, and he restricts the legislator humanus to the \u201cprevailing MARSILIO OF PADUA part\u201d (valentior pars) of the citizens, who are better or (c. 1275 or 1280\u20131342 or 1343) Marsilio of Padua (Marsiglio, Marsilius de Mainardino) was an antipapal political theorist. He was the son of the notary of the University of Padua and studied Aristote- lian philosophy there; later, he taught this philosophy at Paris, where he was rector in 1313 and eventually 452","more numerous (or both) than the others. The Marsilian MART\u00cd RAM\u00d3N \u201clegislator\u201d is usually too numerous to do more than authorize the actual ruler (the pars principans), e.g., an Further Reading elective emperor, a hereditary king, apodest\u00e0, or a coun- cil. In practice, all legislative, judicial, and executive The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought, c. 350- functions are delegated to this ruler, who can, however, c. 1450, ed. J. H. Bams. Cambridge: Cambridge University be deposed by the human legislator that appointed him. Press, 1988, p. 680. (Bibliography.) Thus, Marsilio\u2019s general theory of the state allows for diverse constitutions\u2014monarchical, aristocratic, and Marsilius of Padua. The Defender of Peace, 2 vols., crans. and in- even democratic. The main point, for his purpose, was tro. Alan Gewirth. Records of Civilization: Sources and Stud- that the ruler has a monopoly on political power within ies, 46. New York: Columbia University Press, 1951\u20131956. his state. A competing power independent of the ruler would be contrary to nature. Rubinstein, N. \u201cMarsilius of Padua and Italian Political Thought of His Time.\u201d In Europe in the Late Middle Ages, ed. John The second discourse of Defensor pads defines the Hale et al. London: Faber and Faber, 1965 pp. 44\u201375. proper place of the clergy, and especially the pope, within this political framework. In general, the job of Richard Kay the clergy is to preach the gospel and administer the sacraments. Clergymen are chosen and supported by MART\u00cd, RAM\u00d3N (b. ca 1210\/15) the state, which administers all the worldly affairs of the church. In effect, the Franciscan ideal of poverty The most erudite and accomplished Arabist and Hebraist is extended to the whole clergy. Furthermore, Marsilio of his day, missionary to Muslims and fierce polemicist regards bishops as priests to whom the ruler has del- against Jews, Ram\u00f3n Mart\u00ed was born at Subirats near egated certain executive duties, and the bishop of Rome Barcelona (ca. 1210\/15). He joined the Dominican men- is superior to the rest only insofar as he has been granted dicants at Barcelona\u2019s Santa Caterina priory by 1240, a few broader powers. Marsilio elaborately rebuts the and studied at Saint-Jacques College of the University of papacy\u2019s position that the pope is Peter\u2019s successor as Paris alongside Thomas Aquinas under Albert the Great vicar of Christ and denounces its claim to \u201cplenitude (Albertus Magnus). The order sent him in 1250 to help of power\u201d (plenitudo potestatis) as the \u201csingular cause found a missionary school of Arabic at Tunis. In 1264 of strife or civil discord.\u201d Thus, each state controls the King Jaime I commissioned him to censor rabbinic texts church within it. When questions of faith arise that affect at Barcelona (but probably he had no role or presence the church as a whole, the emperor can call an interna- at the Barcelona Disputations of 1263). Mart\u00ed perhaps tional council, consisting of laymen as well as clergy, to worked at the Murcia Arabicum in 1266; in 1268 he was settle the matter. Enforcement of the council\u2019s decisions, again at Tunis. In 1269 he successfully visited Louis however, is wholly up to the local rulers. IX of France to urge a North African crusade; while there he probably commissioned Thomas Aquinas, for Marsilio completely reversed the dominant view the order\u2019s master general, to write his masterwork the that church and state exercise coordinate jurisdictions Contra gentiles. Mart\u00ed spent the 1270s and 1280s at (\u201cGelasian dualism\u201d). For more than three centuries, De- Barcelona, where he held the chair of Hebrew in 1281. fensor pacis was the arsenal of antipapalists, especially His contemporary Marsili titled him \u201cPhilosophus in in the age of conciliarism and the Reformation. Many arabico,\u201d and \u201cbeloved intimate\u201d not only of Jaime I of its ideas were already current in university circles, and Louis IX but of \u201cthe good king of Tunis.\u201d Mart\u00ed\u2019s but Marsilio gave them coherent, scholarly, and passion- friend Ramon Llull has an anecdote about his nearly ate expression. Moreover, his arguments appealed to a converting that Muslim ruler. King Jaime mentions broad audience trained in Aristotle\u2019s logic and political him as a friend in his own autobiography, noting his philosophy; no special knowledge of law or theology trip from Tunis to Montpellier. Arnau de Villanova was was required. He moved beyond scholasticism in his use one of his students. of history to explain institutional development. Mart\u00ed\u2019s prolific writings are a key to the contemporary Marsilio\u2019s theory of the state was not the main thrust anti-Talmudism and growing animosity toward Jews. of his work, but many readers have been unduly im- Until 1260 his main focus had been the conversion pressed by this theory because it appears to anticipate of Muslims, beginning with his Explanatio symboli such modern doctrines as popular sovereignty and the apostolorum at Tunis in 1257. He is most probably the social contract; they thus overlook the other, deeper author of the Vocabulista in arabico, an Arabic word list medieval roots of these ideas. of some 650 printed pages in Celestino Schiaparelli\u2019s edition, a missionarys\u2019 dictionary of unrivaled impor- See also Albertino Mussato; Cangrande della Scala; tance today for studying the Arabic of eastern Spain. His Ockham, William of Islamic phase ended in 1260 with the now lost Summa against the Qu\u2018ra\u00afn. In 1267 came his Capistrum iudeo- rum, which Aquinas seems to have used for his own Contra gentiles. Mart\u00ed\u2019s masterwork was Pugio fidei contra Mauros et iudeos (Dagger of Faith), finished in 1281, filling over a thousand pages in its printed ver- 453","MART\u00cd RAM\u00d3N some earlier Christian writers, such as Cassiodorus and Gregory of Tours, similarly disliked this hybrid style. sion, of wide influence over the next three centuries. Recent redating of Aquinas\u2019s Contra gentiles suggests See also Eriugena, Johannes Scottus that the hundreds of parallels between these two works show a strong dependence on Mart\u00ed. With a wealth of Further Reading rabbinic materials from and in Hebrew, Pugio is the most thorough of all the medieval anti-Judaic polemi- Martianus Capella. De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii, ed. Adol- cal works. Mart\u00ed\u2019s writings are currently being studied fus Dick, rev. Jean Preaux. Stuttgart: Teubner, 1983. intensively. \u2014\u2014. The Marriage of Philology and Mercury, trans. William See also Aquinas, Thomas; Llull, Ram\u00f3n; Harris Stahl and Richard Johnson with E.L. Burge. NewYork: Vilanova, Arnau de Columbia University Press, 1977. Further Reading Shanzer, Danuta. A Philosophical and Literary Commentary on Martianus Capella\u2019s De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii, Book Cohen, J. The Friars and the Jews. Ithaca, N.Y., 1982. Chap. 6. 1. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986. Robles, L. Escritores dominicos de la corona de Arag\u00f3n, siglos Lesley J. Smith XIII-XV. Salamanca, 1972. MARTINI, SIMONE (c. 1284\u20131344) Robert I. Burns, S. J. The birthplace of the painter Simone Martini is un- MARTIANUS CAPELLA known, but he must have been a citizen of Siena, for (fl. first half of the 5th c) he is referred to as de Senis. We find no mention of Martini (as he will be called here, though he is often Between 410 and 439, Martianus Capella wrote his De called simply Simone) in archival records before 1315. nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii. This non-Christian al- However, the year of his birth may be deduced from legorical treatise, an encyclopedic work on the Seven Vasari, who saw a memorial inscription in the church Liberal Arts, was to have a widespread influence in of San Francesco in Siena, according to which Martini the Christian schools of the late Middle Ages, as a died at age sixty. Martini\u2019s training is undocumented. source for teaching the Trivium and Quadrivium. The He may have been a pupil of Duccio and may even have De nuptiis is in nine books, the first two describing the been one of several collaborators working on Duccio\u2019s allegorical marriage and each of the next seven dealing Maest\u00e0; or, as Vasari wrote, he may have been a pupil with one of the liberal arts. In time-honored tradition, of Giotto in Rome. Many scholars see in Martini\u2019s work Martianus drew his material from a variety of earlier the influence of the French courtly style, to which he sources, chiefly Apulaius, Varro, Pliny, and Euclid. This may have been exposed during visits to Naples and (to us) derivative method only heightened its status in Rome, where French culture throve at the time. Martini the Middle Ages. married Giovanna, the sister of the Sienese artist Lippo Memmi, in 1324; he bought the house they lived in from Martianus had three clear \u201cvogues\u201d: the first was Memmi. The couple had no children. After 1333, there is among the scholars of the Carolingian renaissance cen- no mention of Martini in Siena. By 1336, at the latest, he tered on Charles the Bald. Johannes Scottus Eriugena was in Avignon, where he remained until his death. Only and Remigius of Auxerre wrote commentaries on Mar- his brother Donato, also a painter, and his wife trav- tianus, and it is through Remigius\u2019s commentary that eled with Martini to France. The move may have been the De nuptiis became so influential. The second group prompted by competition in Siena from the Lorenzetti of admirers were 10th-century Italians, like Notker of brothers, who had been on the rise since c. 1328, or by Saint-Gall, Rather of Verona, and Luitprand of Cremona. an unrealized hope for papal commissions. Finally, Martianus was one of the cosmographical au- thors most admired by the 12th-century Chartrians, like Siena, Naples, and Assist (c. 1315\u20131320) Alexander Neckham (who wrote a commentary), John of Salisbury, and Thierry of Chartres. By consensus, the fresco of the Maest\u00e0 (Palazzo Pub- blico, Siena) is Martini\u2019s earliest dated work; it was Of Martianus himself, little is known, except that probably completed for the commune in 1315\u20131316 he was a Roman citizen who spent most of his life at and repaired in 1321. It shows the Virgin and Child Carthage. One Victorian scholar, D. Samuel, describing enthroned beneath a canopy supported by some of the the De nuptiis as a \u201cmixture of dry traditional school saints standing on either side. In the foreground, four learning and tasteless and extravagant theological orna- saintly protectors of the commune kneel with two an- ment, applied to the most incongruous material, with an gels, who present bowls of flowers to the holy pair. A absolutely bizarre effect,\u201d illustrates the extant to which surrounding border contains images in roundels of God Martianus\u2019s work, with its interweaving of fact and fiction, has become foreign to our sensibility, although 454","the father, prophets, evangelists, church doctors, and MARTINI, SIMONE others. This fresco is a unique example of a dialogue between the Virgin and the kneeling saints. The Virgin\u2019s Simone Martini. Saints Clare and Elizabeth of Hungary. statements still remain inscribed on the step below her, Fresco. \u00a9 Scala\/Art Resource, New York. but the prayers originally offered by the saints have disappeared from the scrolls that only two of them cial expressions of singers and details of costume such still hold. The sense of space, defined by the canopy, is as the colorful peaked hats from Hungary, both seen in noteworthy, as is the textured surface, which creates the The Knighting of Saint Martin. Some scholars believe impression of a tapestry and includes insertions into the that the frescoes illustrating the life of Saint Francis plaster of colored glass and imitation gems, as well as elsewhere in the basilica influenced Martini\u2019s style, the earliest examples of patterned halos. both in the Saint Martin cycle and in his later work. Martini may also have been responsible for the three The Saint Louis Altarpiece, tempera on panel stained-glass windows in the chapel. These windows (Naples, Capo-dimonte Museum) is signed. It was prob- (of uncertain date) show Saint Martin and other figures. ably commissioned by Louis\u2019s brother, King Robert of According to Vasari, the Virgin and Child with Saints Anjou, and shows angels crowning an enthroned Louis, and Five Saints, frescoes in the chapel of Santa Elisa- while the saint himself deposits a second crown on a betta in the basilica, were begun by Martini and finished minuscule figure of Robert, kneeling at the right. It is by Lippo Memmi. datable between 1317, when Louis was canonized, and 1319, when his remains were translated to a new tomb Siena, Orvieto, San Gimignano, and Pisa in Marseilles in a ceremony attended by Robert, who (c. 1320\u20131335) returned to Naples with Louis\u2019s brain as a relic. Mar- The Grieving Saint John (Barber Institute, Birmingham), tini probably traveled to Naples to execute the picture. in tempera on wood, is dated 1320 but undocumented Louis\u2019s royal status is emphasized by the fleur-de-lis and before 1932. The saint\u2019s emotions are beautifully ex- other emblems on the frame and the saint\u2019s robe. The pressed. This work is small in scale and was probably intricate tooling and use of glass, stones, silver, and gold part of a triptych painted for a private patron. lend the work opulence. The narrative predella, the earli- est of this form to survive, illustrates five events from The frescoed Equestrian Portrait of Guidoriccio da the life, death, and miracles of Louis. Though the scenes Fogliano (Siena, Palazzo Pubblico) is controversial. are set in different architectural interiors, the intuitive Documents show that Simone dipentore painted at perspective is synchronized in all five, with orthogonals least four pictures of castles in the Palazzo Pubblico moving toward the vertical axis of the central scene. The narrative frescoes in the chapel of Saint Martin of Tours (Assisi, basilica of San Francesco) have been attributed to Martini since the nineteenth century for stylistic reasons. The commission was funded by Gentile di Partino da Montefiore, a Franciscan cardinal from the Marches who died in 1312. The paintings include ten scenes from the legend of Martin and many sepa- rate pictures of saints and angels, as well as a portrait of the donor kneeling before Martin. The cycle was probably painted after the donor\u2019s death in 1312 but before 1319, when a period of political strife in Assisi would have prevented artistic activity in the basilica. The dedication of an Italian chapel to Martin, a patron saint of France who was born in Hungary, is surprising. Perhaps the donor\u2019s education in Paris and a later trip to Hungary on a diplomatic mission inspired his choice. The pictures treat Martin\u2019s secular life, reign as bishop, death, and funeral. Their narrative sequence is unusual, moving from the bottom of the wall to the top. Though the space is shallow in all the scenes, whether set in architectural interiors or outdoors, the pictorial drama is clearly articulated through the gestures and glances of the figures\u2014for example, a pauper in the first scene who grasps Martin\u2019s cloak. Also impressive are the fa- 455","MARTINI, SIMONE from Augustinian texts, two unrecorded. Each contains two episodes, a disaster followed by salvation. Three of in 1330 and 1331; Since Guidoriccio shows castles in the four stories show Agostino saving small children, the background, some scholars assume that it is among an emphasis compatible with the protohumanism of the the documented pictures. However, the fresco was not early Trecento. mentioned by Ghiberti or Vasari, and it is not signed. Moreover, there are errors in the treatment of military Martini and his workshop painted other polyptychs, details that lead some to conclude not only that the typically showing a half-length Virgin and child in the painting is not by Martini, but that it is later than the center flanked by panels containing busts of saints. At fourteenth century. A relatively recent discovery of a least two rested on a predella, and all apparently were fresco containing a castle lower down on the same wall crowned with gables filled with bust-length figures. as Guidoriccio allows us to attribute that work to Martini The altarpiece painted for Santa Caterina in Pisa (Pisa, in lieu of die disputed picture. But if Guidoriccio is by Museo Nazionale di San Matteo) and signed by Martini Martini, and the inaccuracies are due to sloppy restora- seems to have survived intact. The others, broken up and tions in later times, the fresco demonstrates the painter\u2019s with many panels missing, apparently were painted as innovativeness. The warrior, identified as Guidoriccio by altar-pieces for churches in Orvieto and San Gimignano. his heraldry, rides alone immediately behind the picture plane, a broad landscape stretching far beyond him\u2014an Avignon (c. 1335\u20131344) image without precedent in medieval secular palaces. The frescoes originally in the porch of the cathedral of The Saint Ansanus Annunciation (Florence, Uffizi) is Notre Dame des Doms, Avignon, were probably com- signed by both Simone Martini and Lippo Memmi and missioned by Cardinal Jacopo Stefaneschi (d. 1341). dated 1333. It is painted in tempera on wood and is an When the badly damaged fragments that survive were early example of an altarpiece illustrated with a narrative transferred to the museum of the Palais des Papes, up scene. The work shows Saint Ansanus and an unidenti- to three layers of sinopie were revealed. Two works are fied female saint (Margaret?) at either side and prophets completely lost: Andrea Corsini Healing a Blind Man, a in roundels. It was the first of four altarpieces for the portrayal of a miracle that took place in the porch itself; cathedral of Siena, dedicated to the four saintly protec- and Saint George and the Dragon, known through a sev- tors of the city, one of whom was Ansanus. The frame enteenth-century copy. The extant fragments and sinopie was added in the late nineteenth century. The records of portray the earliest known Madonna of Humility and payment shed no light on the respective responsibilities an adult Jesus with an orb flanked by six angels. In the of the two collaborators. Probably Martini painted the former, the donor kneels before the Virgin, and the child Annunciation and Memmi painted the two saints and holds a scroll inscribed \u201cI am the light of the world\u201d; in the prophets. A fifth roundel most likely portrayed God the latter, the unusual orb contains a landscape framed the father. The Annunciation is noteworthy for its Im- between rippling water and a starry sky. The changes mediacy: Gabriel has just alighted, his cape still flying, in the skillfully drawn series of sinopie suggest that the while the Virgin recoils in fear. Elegant details include patron played an active role in the artist\u2019s progress. Mary\u2019s intarsia throne; the marble floor; and Gabriel\u2019s brocaded robe, plaid cape, and rose-tinged wings. As The Holy Family (Liverpool, Walker Art Gallery) is in other Sienese Annunciations, Gabriel bears an olive signed and dated 1342. This small picture in tempera branch instead of a lily. He also wears a crown of olive is a unique portrayal of Jesus, Mary, and Joseph im- leaves. Symbolic of peace, these leaves perhaps allude mediately after the disputation with the doctors in the to the coming of Jesus, the prince of peace. The words temple. The codex in the Virgin\u2019s lap contains an ab- of Gabriel\u2019s announcement, Ave Gratia Plena Dominus breviated quotation from Luke 2:48\u2014\u201cSon, why hast Tecum (Luke 1:28), are in relief; they can thus be read thou dealt with us thus?\u201d\u2014and the gestures indicate a metaphorically as the word that becomes flesh in Mary\u2019s parental reprimand of the defiant Jesus. This work is womb at this instant.The Altarpiece of the Blessed Agos- an unusual example of the Holy Family as an ordinary tino Novello (Siena, Pinaco-teca Nazionale) is a tempera family with ordinary problems; as such, it reflects the painting in an old-fashioned pala format. Though it is human values of the time. unsigned and undated, most scholars believe that Mar- tini was the artist. It was painted for Saint\u2019 Agostino The Virgil Frontispiece (Milan, Biblioteca Ambro- in Siena and was first documented in 1638, together siana) was painted on vellum for Petrarch between with the sarcophagus of the Beatus (now lost) that it 1338 and 1344. A couplet inscribed on it states that the decorated. Agostino, a hermit monk who died in 1309 artist was Simone Martini. This painting was made for outside Siena, was venerated locally. The central panel Petrarch\u2019s volume of classical texts, which included of the altarpiece portrays him standing amid four trees, most of Virgil; it originally faced the first work, a fourth- book in hand, an inspirational angel at his ear. The side century commentary by Servius on the Bucolics. The panels illustrate four posthumous miracles\u2014two drawn image seems to be an allegory explained by two other 456"]