Key Figures in Medieval Europe - An Encyclopedia

KEY FIGURES IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE AN ENCYCLOPEDI A Richard K. Emmerson Editor Sandra Clayton-Emmerson Associate Editor New York London

Published in 2006 by Published in Great Britain by Routledge Routledge Taylor & Francis Group Taylor & Francis Group 270 Madison Avenue 2 Park Square New York, NY 10016 Milton Park, Abingdon Oxon OX14 4RN © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number-10: 0-415-97385-6 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-415-97385-4 (Hardcover) No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress Taylor & Francis Group is the Academic Division of Informa plc. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the Routledge Web site at http://www.routledge-ny.com

CONTENTS Introduction vii ix The Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages Contributors xi Alphabetical List of Entries xxi Thematic List of Entries xxvii Entries by Region xxxv Maps xli Entries A-Z 1 Index 685 v



INTRODUCTION Key Figures in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia provides a broad introduction to the biographical knowledge collected and investigated by modern scholarship over the past several decades regarding the persons whose actions, beliefs, creations, and writings shaped the Middle Ages, roughly that period in European history stretching from about 500 to 1500. The geographic and chronological range of this volume is therefore extensive and impressive, as are the lives and accomplishments of the 587 figures it discusses. Although the historical record tends to favor persons born into or achieving the higher estates of the Middle Ages, such as the princes of church and state, these entries include a wide range of individuals, from emperors and queens to businessmen and traveling performers, from popes and university scholars to visionary women and heretics, from one of the greatest poets of all times, Dante, who dur- ing the later Middle Ages was known internationally, to Caedmon, a little known oral poet living on the edge of civilized Europe during the early Middle Ages. These are the people who influenced, motivated, and were shaped by the artistic, economic, intellectual, literary, political, religious, and social history of one of the most fascinating periods of world history, the Middle Ages. It is worth noting that the Islamic world receives attention in Key Figures in Medieval Europe, most of all because of its important place in medieval Iberia. The 587 entries included in Key Figures in Medieval Europe are drawn from the following eight previously pub- lished volumes in the Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages series, initiated by Garland. • Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia, edited by Phillip Pulsiano and Kirsten Wolf (Garland, 1993) • Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, John Bell Henneman, Jr., and Lawrence Earp (Garland, 1995) • Medieval England: An Encyclopedia, edited by Paul E. Szarmach, M. Teresa Tavormina, and Joel T. Rosenthal (Garland, 1998) • Trade, Travel, and Exploration in the Middle Ages: An Encyclopedia, edited by John Block Friedman and Kristen Mossler Figg (Garland, 2000) • Medieval Germany: An Encyclopedia, edited by John M. Jeep (Garland, 2001) • Medieval Jewish Civilization: An Encyclopedia, edited by Norman Roth (Routledge, 2002) • Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia, edited by E. Michael Gerli (Routledge, 2003) • Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia, edited by Christopher Kleinhenz (Routledge, 2003). The entries comprising Key Figures in Medieval Europe were carefully selected amongst the biographical entries found in the above volumes to provide a source for quick and ready information. The present volume is intended not only for students, librarians, teachers, and the general public, who may be interested in the Middle Ages but do not wish to purchase or sift through numerous individual encyclopedias, but also for medievalists and other scholars who want to have a reliable reference work easily at hand. By drawing on previously published entries, the volume gathers the best of scholarship scattered over eight volumes into one easy to use biographical resource. To preserve the integrity of the scholarship, the entries are published as they originally appeared. The strength of the entries is evident in the quality of the scholarship that informed the original volumes and that drew on the wide knowledge of hundreds of scholars selected by the editors of the volumes for their expertise in the areas of medieval studies assigned to them. The entries, therefore, are reliable accounts of the medieval figures discussed and can be used with confidence by all readers. vii

INTRODUCTION A compilation that seeks to combine entries from several geographically-based volumes into a single Europe-wide volume is bound to have slight inconsistencies. The entries are arranged alphabetically according to the spelling of the name in the source volume, but entries drawn from other volumes may refer to these individuals by somewhat different names or spellings. There is also some variation in length. Readers should not assume that the length of an entry represents the importance of a subject, because the source volumes vary in the size of their entries. Given the thousands of individuals included in the eight encyclopedias, it was necessary to establish some rea- sonably consistent criteria for selecting the entries included in Key Figures in Medieval Europe. Obviously, word length could not be the primary criterion. However, within individual encyclopedias length could be used as a rough gauge of importance, especially within certain categories, such as political figures. But such distinctions in length within a single volume could not be used as an absolute, because of the nature of historical knowledge and available evidence. We simply know much more about political figures (particularly members of the nobility) than we know about commoners, which means that entries on emperors, kings, and caliphs, for example, will, with a very few exceptions (e.g., Dante), be longer than entries on musicians, painters, and poets. Similarly, because of the interna- tional nature of the Christian church and its omnipresence, we often know much more about religious figures than secular ones, even when they were attached to courts and cathedrals. As in the modern world, gender structures also affected the status of men and women during the Middle Ages, so that the historical record is generally much fuller when dealing with men than with women. Therefore, to provide some balance to Key Figures in Medieval Europe and to ensure that it represents the wide range of cultural practices, as well as political events and religious thought, the selection privileges secular and artistic figures by including several individuals whose entries in the source volumes are relatively short. Since these individuals often worked outside the corridors of power and left few biographical records, there is little biographical detail to explore, yet their accomplishments are significant. The selection of entries, in other words, is ultimately driven by the editorial sense of long-term importance and influence, as well as by what the reader may find interesting about the Middle Ages. HOW TO USE THIS BOOK Key Figures in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia is arranged in an easy-to-use A-to-Z reference format that con- tains 587 entries. See also end-references and Further Reading suggestions direct the reader to explore the topics further. To enhance the ease of use, readers will find an alphabetical list of entries and a thematic list of entries that organizes entries under such categories as artists and architects, authors, merchants and businessmen, musicians, political leaders, religious figures, scientists, travelers, as well as notable women. Also, a list by region organizes the entries by geographic areas, such as England, France, Germany, Iberia, Italy, Low Countries, and Scandinavia. Readers will also find a detailed index at the end of the book to help them further navigate the work. viii

THE ROUTLEDGE ENCYCLOPEDIAS OF THE MIDDLE AGES Formerly the Garland Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages, this comprehensive series began in 1993 with the publica- tion of Medieval Scandinavia. A major enterprise in medieval scholarship, the series brings the expertise of scholars specializing in myriad aspects of the medieval world together in a reference source accessible to students and the general public as well as to historians and scholars in related fields. Each volume focuses on a geographical area or theme important to medieval studies and is edited by a specialist in that field, who has called upon a board of consulting editors to establish the article list and review the articles. Each article is contributed by a scholar and followed by a bibliography and cross-references to guide further research. Routledge is proud to carry on the tradition established by the first volumes in this important series. As the series continues to grow, we hope that it will provide the most comprehensive and detailed view of the medieval world in all its aspects ever presented in encyclopedia form. Vol. 1 Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia. Edited by Phillip Pulsiano. Vol. 2 Medieval France: An Encyclopedia. Edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, John Bell Henneman, Jr., and Lawrence Earp. Vol. 3 Medieval England: An Encyclopedia. Edited by Paul E. Szarmach, M. Teresa Tavormina, and Joel T. Rosenthal. Vol. 4 Medieval Archaeology: An Encyclopedia. Edited by Pamela Crabtree. Vol. 5 Trade, Travel, and Exploration in the Middle Ages: An Encyclopedia. Edited by John Block Friedman and Kristen Mossler Figg. Vol. 6 Medieval Germany: An Encyclopedia. Edited by John M. Jeep. Vol. 7 Medieval Jewish Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Edited by Norman Roth. Vol. 8 Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia. Edited by E. Michael Gerli. Vol. 9 Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia. Edited by Christopher Kleinhenz. Vol. 10 Medieval Ireland: An Encyclopedia. Edited by Seán Duffy. Vol. 11 Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Edited by Thomas Glick, Stephen J. Livesey, and Faith Wallis. Vol. 12 Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Edited by Josef W. Meri. The present volume, Key Figures in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Richard K. Emmerson, reprises contents from volumes 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 and is Volume 13 in the series. ix



CONTRIBUTORS Omeima Abou-Bakr Frank Barlow Cairo University University of Exeter Emily Albu Carl F. Barnes, Jr. University of California, Davis Oakland College James W. Alexander Peter Barnet University of Georgia Metropolitan Museum of Art Gloria Allaire Christopher C. Baswell Gettysburg College Barnard College J. Michael Allsen Janet M. Bately University of Wisconsin, Madison King’s College, London Martin Arbagi Emmanuèle Baumgartner Wright State University Paris III, La Sorbonne Nouvelle Amanda Athey Priscilla Bawcutt University of Georgia University of Liverpool Martí Aurell I Cardona Thomas Bein Paris, France Universität Bonn Ellen L. Babinsky Rafael Beltrán Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary Universitat de Barcelona Lola Badia Ingrid Bennewitz Universitat de Girona Universität Bamberg Peter S. Baker C. David Benson University of Virginia University of Connecticut Søren Balle Joseph R. Berrigan Aarhus Universitet, Aarhus, Denmark University of Georgia John W. Barker Robert E. Bjork University of Wisconsin, Madison Arizona State University xi

CONTRIBUTORS Robert I. Burns, S. J. University of California, Los Angeles Renate Blumenfeld-Kosinski University of Pittsburgh Keith Busby University of Oklahoma Uta-Renate Blumenthal Catholic University of America Joseph P. Byrne Belmont University Flavio Boggi University College, Cork William C. Calin University of Florida H. Lawrence Bond Appalachian State University Robert G. Calkins Cornell University Anthony Bonner Palma de Mallorca Daniel F. Callahan University of Delaware Daniel E. Bornstein Texas A&M University C. Jean Campbell Emory University Steven N. Botterill University of California, Berkeley Miles Campbell New Mexico State University Constance B. Bouchard University of Akron Vicente Cantarino Ohio State University Maureen B. M. Boulton University of Notre Dame Stephen M. Carey Washington University, St. Louis Ritamary Bradley St. Ambrose University Brendan Cassidy University of St. Andrews Ross Brann Cornell University Gary P. Cestaro DePaul University Annette Brasseur Université Charles de Gaulle, Lille Martin Chase, S.J. John Carroll University Derek S. Brewer Emmanuel College, Cambridge Robert Chazan New York University George Hardin Brown Stanford University Celia Chazelle Trenton State College Elizabeth A. R. Brown Brooklyn College, City University of New York Stephanie Christelow Idaho State University Matilda T. Bruckner Boston College Eric Christiansen New College, Oxford James A. Brundage University of Kansas Marlene Ciklamini Rutgers University Charles Burnett Warburg Institute, London xii

Geert H. M. Claassens CONTRIBUTORS Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Charles T. Davis Albrecht Classen University of Arizona Guido O.E.J. De Baere University of Antwerp Margaret Clunies Ross University of Sydney Dario Del Puppo Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut Roger Collins St. George’s School, Edinburgh Bradley J. Delaney La Mesa, California Eleanor A. Congdon Youngstown State University Peter F. Dembowski University of Chicago Jane E. Connolly University of Miami Ernst S. Dick Atkinson College, York University, Toronto Leo A. Connolly University of Memphis Madelyn Bergen Dick Atkinson College, York University, Toronto John J. Contreni Purdue University John B. Dillon University of Wisconsin, Madison William R. Cook State University of New York, Geneseo Peter Dinzelbache Salzburg, Austria Helen Cooper University College, Oxford Maria Dobozy University of Utah Brigitte Corley London, England Keith R. Dockray University of Huddersfield Rebecca M. Corrie Bates College Micheal R. Dodds Southern Methodist University Dustin Cowell University of Wisconsin Claire M. Donovan Winchester, England Giuseppe Cremascoli University of Bologna Joanna H. Drell University of Richmond Roger J. Crum University of Dayton Katherine F. Drew Rice University Amanda Curry Washington, D.C. Graeme Dunphy Universität Regensburg Gareth Curtis Manchester, England André Duplat Vesoul, France Daphne L. Davidson New York, New York Francis A. Dutra University of California, Santa Barbara Steven N. Dworkin University of Michigan xiii

CONTRIBUTORS Charles Fraker University of Michigan Theresa Earenfight Seattle University Michael Frassetto Encyclopedia Britannica Lawrence Earp University of Wisconsin, Madison Peter Frenzel Wesleyan University Sten Ebbesen Københavns Universitet, Denmark Donald K. Fry St. Petersburg, Florida Bradford Lee Eden University of Nevada, Las Vegas Richard Gameson University of Kent, Canterbury A. S. G. Edwards University of Victoria Gail L. Geiger University of Wisconsin, Madison Mary Douglas Edwards Pratt Institute Francis G. Gentry Pennsylvania State University Robert R. Edwards Pennsylvania State University Richard A. Gerberding University of Alabama, Huntsville Ólafía Einarsdóttir Københavns Universitet, Denmark Philip O. Gericke University of California, Riverside Clara Estow University of Massachusetts, Boston E. Michael Gerli University of Virginia An Faems Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Faye Marie Getz Wellcome Institute, London David Fallows University of Manchester James L. Gillespie Amman, Jordan Richard C. Famiglietti Providence, Rhode Island Jutta Goheen Carleton University, Ottawa Steven Fanning University of Illinois, Chicago Cristina González University of California, Davis Seymour Feldman Rutgers University Anthony E. Goodman University of Edinburgh Felipe Fernández-Armesto Hakluyt Society Janice Gordon-Kelter University of St. Thomas, Houston George Ferzoco University of Leicester T. J. Gorton Paris, France Bjarne Fidjestøl Universitetet i Bergen, Norway Karen Gould University of Texas, Austin Robert C. Figueira Lander University, Greenwood, South Carolina xiv

Aryeh Grabois CONTRIBUTORS University of Haifa Joan A. Holladay Angus Graham University of Texas, Austin Sultan Qaboos University David Hook Timothy Graham University of Bristol Western Michigan University Gert Hübner Theresa Gross-Diaz Universität Bamberg Loyola University, Chicago Caroline Huey Steven Grossvogel University of Texas, Austin University of Georgia Joseph P. Huffman Anna A. Grotans Messiah College, Grantham, Pennsylvania Ohio State University Lois L. Huneycutt Joseph J. Gwara University of Missouri, Columbia United States Naval Academy Sylvia Huot Cynthia Hahn Northern Illinois University Florida State University Thomas M. Izbicki Rosemary Drage Hale Eisenhower Library, Johns Hopkins University Concordia University, Montreal Sybille Jefferis E. Kay Harris University of Pennsylvania University of Southern Mississippi Frede Jensen Warren Zev Harvey University of Colorado, Boulder King’s College, University of London Phyllis G. Jestice Herbert Heinen California State University, Hayward University of Texas, Austin Sidney M. Johnson Ingeborg Henderson Indiana University University of California, Davis Michael Jones John Bell Henneman, Jr. University of London Princeton University William Chester Jordan Jan W. Herlinger Princeton University Louisiana State University Donald J. Kagay Ernst Ralf Hintz Albany State University Fort Hays State University, Hays, Kansas Henry Kamen Maarten J. F. M. Hoenen Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen Barcelona Hanns Hohmann San Jose State University Ruth Mazo Karras University of Pennsylvania V. Louise Katainen Auburn University xv

CONTRIBUTORS Jeremy Lawrance University of Manchester Richard Kay University of Kansas Peter M. Lefferts University of Nebraska, Lincoln Hans-Erich Keller Ohio State University Theodore Leinbaugh University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill F. Douglas Kelly University of Wisconsin, Madison Jessica Levenstein New York, New York William W. Kibler University of Texas, Austin Joan H. Levin Philadelphia, Pennsylvania John L. Kirby Streatham, London Daniel M. Levine Savannah College of Art and Design Christopher Kleinhenz University of Wisconsin, Madison Gertrud Jaron Lewis Laurentian University, Sudbury, Canada Alan E. Knight Pennsylvania State University Karen E. Loaiza State University of New York, Plattsburgh C. H. Knowles University of Wales, Cardiff Karma Lochrie Loyola University, Chicago Jeanne E. Krochalis Pennsylvania State University John Lomax Ohio Northern University Steven F. Kruger City University of New York Graham A. Loud University of Leeds Kelly Kubaca University of Kentucky Sieglinde Lug University of Denver Sigurd Kværndrup Skælskør Folkehøjskole, Denmark Niels Lund Københavns Universitet, Denmark Maria Jesús Lacarra Universidad de Zaragoza Malcolm C. Lyons Cambridge University Norris J. Lacy Washington University, St. Louis Angus MacKay Edinburgh University Miguel Angel Ladero Quesada Universidad Complutense de Madrid Giulio Maffii Milan, Italy Maura K. Lafferty Villanova University John Margetts University of Liverpool Richard Landes Boston University Edith Marold Christian-Albrechts-Universität, Kiel Michelle I. Lapine University of Texas, Austin xvi

William Marvin CONTRIBUTORS Lister M. Matheson James Noble Michigan State University University of New Brunswick E. Ann Matter Suzanne Noffke University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania R. Thomas McDonald William North Fairleigh Dickinson University Carleton College, Northfield, Minnesota William C. McDonald Tore Nyberg University of Virginia Odense Universitet, Denmark Michael R. McVaugh Robert Oakley University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill University of Birmingham Gustav Medicus Joseph F. O’Callaghan Kent State University Fordham University Thom Mertens Eva Odelman Antwerp, Belgium Riksarkivet, Stockholm Emmanuel J. Mickel Jim Ogier Indiana University Roanoke College, Salem, Virginia Clyde Lee Miller Willemien Otten State University of New York, Stony Brook Boston College Maureen C. Miller William D. Paden George Mason University Northwestern University Scott B. Montgomery Brian A. Pavlac University of North Texas King’s College, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania Jesús Montoya Martínez David A. E. Pelteret Universidad de Granada University of Toronto Bridget Morris Rupert T. Pickens University of Hull, England University of Kentucky Karl F. Morrison Martin Picker Rutgers University Rutgers University Anita F. Moskowitz Sandra Pinegar State University of New York, Stony Brook Ohio State University Deborah H. Nelson Paul B. Pixton Rice University Brigham Young University Janet L. Nelson Russell Poole King’s College, London Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand Colbert I. Nepaulsingh Burcht Pranger State University of New York, Albany University of Amsterdam xvii

CONTRIBUTORS Julio Samsó Universidad de Barcelona Michael Prestwich University of Durham Michael G. Sargent Queens College, City University of New York Ricardo J. Quinones Claremont McKenna College Barbara N. Sargent-Baur University of Pittsburgh Matthew B. Raden Tulane University Helene Scheck Rensselaer, New York Sherry Reames University of Wisconsin, Madison Brigitte Schliewen Vaterstetten, Germany Luis Rebelo King’s College, University of London Gary D. Schmidt Calvin College Susanne Reece Ohio State University Simon Schwarzfuchs Jerusalem, Israel Nancy F. Regalado New York University Laurie Shepard Boston College Bernard F. Reilly Villanova University Leah Shopkow Indiana University Marta O. Renger Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms Universität Bonn Michael A. Signer University of Notre Dame Mary P. Richards University of Delaware James Simpson Girton College, Cambridge Phyllis B. Roberts City University of New York Patricia Skinner University of Southampton Philipp W. Rosemann University of Dallas Carola M. Small University of Edinburgh Samuel N. Rosenberg Indiana University Janet Levarie Smarr University of California, San Diego Roy S. Rosenstein American College in Paris Lesley J. Smith Linacre College, Oxford University Norman Roth University of Wisconsin, Madison William Bradford Smith Oglethorpe University, Atlanta Jonathan Rotondo-McCord Xavier University of Louisiana Jeffrey Chipps Smith University of Texas, Austin Lara Ruffolo Auckland, New Zealand Kristine K. Sneeringer Washington University, St. Louis Alan Ryder University of Bristol xviii

Paul D. Solon CONTRIBUTORS Macalester College Alfons M. J. van Buuren Mary B. Speer Amersfort, The Netherlands Rutgers University Stephanie Cain Van D’Elden Paolo Squatriti University of Minnesota University of Michigan Dieuwke van der Poel Ruggero Stefanini Rijksuniversiteit te Utrecht University of California, Berkeley Paul J. J. van Geest Alexandra Sterling-Hellenbrand Titus Brandsma Instituut Goshen College, Goshen, Indiana Amelia E. Van Vleck Steven A. Stofferahn University of Texas, Austin Purdue University Sally N. Vaughn H. Wayne Storey University of Houston Indiana University, Bloomington Alessandro Vettori Debra L. Stoudt Rutgers University University of Toledo Jón Viðar Sigurðsson Folke Ström Universitetet i Oslo, Norway Göteborg Universitet, Sweden Kim Vivian Richard E. Sullivan Augustana College, Rock Island, Illinois Michigan State University Thomas G. Waldman Israel Ta-Shma University of Pennsylvania Hebrew University, Jerusalem David Wallace Laurie Taylor-Mitchell University of Pennsylvania Hood College Susan L. Ward Lynn D. Thelen Rhode Island School of Design Ursinus College, Collegeville, Pennsylvania David A. Warner Timothy M. Thibodeau Rhode Island School of Design Nazareth College of Rochester W. L. Warren J. A. F. Thomson Queen’s University, Belfast University of Glasgow Scott L. Waugh Frank Tobin University of California, Los Angeles University of Nevada, Reno Jill R. Webster Thomas Turley University of Toronto Santa Clara University Barbara F. Weissberger Julio Valdeón Baruque University of Minnesota Universidad de Valladolid Nicolas Wey-Gómez Massachusetts Institute of Technology xix

CONTRIBUTORS Ronald G. Witt Duke University Diana Edwards Whaley University of Newcastle upon Tyne Kenneth B. Wolf Pomona College Ulrike Wiethaus Wake Forest University Roger Wright University of Liverpool Constance L. Wilkins Miami University R. F. Yeager University of North Carolina, Asheville Charity Cannon Willard Cornwall-on-Hudson, New York John Zemke University of Missouri, Columbia Joan B. Williamson Long Island University Mark Zier University of the Pacific Katharina M. Wilson University of Georgia Grover A. Zinn Oberlin College James I. Wimsatt University of Texas, Austin Janice C. Zinser Oberlin College George D. Winius College of Charleston Jan Ziolkowski Harvard University Anders Winroth Yale University Anne Winston-Allen Southern Illinois University, Carbondale xx

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ENTRIES A Arnórr Þórðarson jarlaskáld Abélard, Peter Asher b. Yeh. iel Abraham Bar H. iyya (H. ayya) Augustine of Canterbury Abravanel, Isaac Averroës, Abu ‘L-Wal¯ıd Muh. ammad B. Ah. mad B. Adam de la Halle Adam of Bremen Rushd Ælfric Avicenna Æthelwold of Winchester Afonso III, King of Portugal B Alain de Lille Bacon, Roger Albertanus of Brescia Beatrijs van Nazareth Albertino Mussato Beatus of Liébana Albertus Magnus Beaumanoir, Philippe de Remi, Sire de Albornoz, Gil Alvarez Carrillo De Becket, Thomas Alcuin Bede the Venerable Aldhelm Bedford, John Duke of Alexander of Hales Beheim, Michael Alfonso V, King of Aragón, The Magnanimous Benedict of Nursia, Saint Alfonso VI, King of León-Castile Benjamin of Tudela Alfonso X, El Sabio, King of Castile and León Benoît de Sainte-Maure Alfred the Great Berceo, Gonzalo de Altichiero da Zevio Bernard Gui Alvarus, Paulus Bernard of Chartres Amadeo VI, Count of Savoy Bernard of Clairvaux Andreas Capellanus Bernard Silvestris Andrew of Saint Victor Bernart de Ventadorn Angela da Foligno, Saint Berno von Reichenau Angelo Clareno Bernward of Hildesheim Anno Béroul Anselm of Bec Bersuire, Pierre Anselm of Laon Berthold von Regensburg Ansgar, Saint Birgitta, Saint Anthony of Padua, Saint Bjarni Kolbeinsson Antonio Pucci Blanche of Castile Aquinas, Thomas Boccaccio, Giovanni Archpoet Boethius de Dacia Aristippus, Henry Bohemond of Taranto Arnold of Brescia Bonagiunta Orbicciani degli Averardi Arnolfo di Cambio Bonaventura Berlinghieri Bonaventure, Saint xxi

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ENTRIES D Daddi, Bernardo Boniface VIII, Pope D’ailly, Pierre Boppe, Meister Damian, Peter Bragi Boddason Daniel the Abbot Brailes, William de Dante Alighieri Brunetto Latini David von Augsburg Buoncompagno da Signa Deschamps, Eustache Burchard of Mount Sion Dhuoda Busnoys, Antoine Dias, Bartolomeu Byrhtferth Díaz de Games, Gutierre (El Victorial) Díaz de Vivar, Rodrigo C Digulleville, Guillaume de Cædmon Dinis, King of Portugal Caesarius of Heisterbach Dirc van Delf Campin, Robert Dolcino, Fra Cangrande della Scala Dominic, Saint Cão, Diogo Douglas, Gavin Cartagena, Alfonso de Duccio di Buoninsegna Cartagena, Teresa de Dufay, Guillaume Cassian, John Dunbar, William Cassiodorus Duns Scotus, John Catherine of Siena, Saint Dunstable, John Cavalcanti, Guido Dunstan of Canterbury Cavallini, Pietro Caxton, William E Cecco Angiolieri Ebner, Margaretha Cecco d’Ascoli Edward I Celestine V, Pope Edward III Charlemagne Edward the Confessor Charles d’Orléans Egeria Charles II the Bad Eike von Repgow Charles IV Eilhart von Oberg Charles Martel Einarr Helgason skálaglamm Charles V the Wise Einarr Skúlason Charles VI Einhard Charles VII Eiximenis, Francesc Chartier, Alain Eleanor of Aquitaine Chaucer, Geoffrey Elisabeth von Schönau Chrétien de Troyes Elizabeth of Hungary Christine de Pizan Encina, Juan del Ciconia, Johannes Engelbert of Berg Cimabue Enrique II, King of Castile Cino da Pistoia Erhart, Michel Clare, Saint Erik, Saint Clement V, Pope Eriugena, Johannes Scottus Clovis I Eugenius of Palermo Cnut Eulogius of Córdoba Cœur, Jacques Eyvindr Finnsson skáldaspillir Columbus, Christopher Ezzo Commynes, Philippe de Compagni, Dino F Conrad II Fazio degli Uberti Conrad of Marburg Fernando I, King of León Conrad of Urach Fernando III, King of Castile Conrad von Soest Constance Cynewulf xxii

Ferrer, Vicente, Saint ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ENTRIES Flores, Juan de Folz, Hans Guinizzelli, Guido Fouquet, Jean Guittone d’Arezzo Francesco d’Accorso Gutenberg, Johann Francis of Assisi, Saint Guzmán, Domingo de Francke, Master Guzmán, Nuño de Frau Ava Frauenlob H Frederick I Barbarossa Hadewijch Frederick II Hadrian I, Pope Frederick III Hadrian IV, Pope Friedrick von Hausen H. afs.a Bint Al-Hayy Ar-Rakuniyya Froissart, Jean Hákon góði (“the good”) Haraldsson Frueauf, Rueland, the Elder Hákon Hákonarson Fulbert of Chartres Haraldr harðraði (“hard-ruler”) Sigurðarson Haraldr hárfagri (“fair-hair”) Hálfdanarson G Harold Godwinson Gaddi, Taddeo Harpestreng, Henrik Gama, Vasco da Hartmann von Aue Gautier d’Arras Hawkwood, Sir John Gautier de Coinci Heinric Gelmírez, Diego, Archbishop of Compostela Heinrich der Glîcherzâre Geoffrey of Monmouth Heinrich von dem Türlin Gerhoh of Reichersberg Heinrich von Melk Gershom b. Judah Heinrich von Morungen Gerson, Jean Heinrich von Veldeke Gerthener, Madern Héloïse Gertrud von Helfta Henrique, Prince of Portugal Giacomino da Verona Henry I Giacomo da Lentini Henry I of Saxony Gilbert of Poitiers Henry II Giles of Rome Henry III Giotto di Bondone Henry IV Giovanni del Virgilio Henry IV, Emperor Giovanni di Piano Carpini Henry the Lion Giusto de’ Menabuoi Henry V Godefroi de Bouillon Henry VI Godfrey of Viterbo Henry VII of Luxembourg Gottfried von Straßburg Henryson, Robert Gottschalk Hermann von Fritzlar Gower, John Herrad von Hohenburg Grasser, Erasmus Herrand von Wildonie Gratian Hild Greban, Arnoul Hildegard von Bingen Gregory I, Pope Hilton, Walter Gregory of Tours Hoccleve, Thomas Gregory VII, Pope Hrabanus Maurus Grocheio, Johannes de Hrosvit of Gandersheim Grosseteste, Robert Hugh Capet Guesclin, Bertrand du Hugh of Saint-Victor Guibert de Nogent Hugo von Trimberg Guido d’Arezzo Hugues de Saint-Cher Guido delle Colonne Humility of Faenza Guilhem IX Guillaume de Lorris I Ibn Adret, Solomon Ibn Dau¯d, Abraham xxiii

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ENTRIES L La Vigne, André de Ibn Ezra, Moses Landini, Francesco Ibn H. azm Lanfranc of Bec Ibn Khaldu¯n Langmann, Adelheid Ibn Quzma¯n Laufenberg, Heinrich Ibn Sa’¯ıd, Abu¯ ‘L-H. asan ‘Al¯ı B. Mu¯ sa¯ B. Muh. ammad Laვamon or Layamon Leo III, Emperor B. ‘Abd al-Malik B. Sa’¯ıd Leo IX, Pope Ibn Zaydu¯n Leodegundia Ibn Zuhr, Abu¯ Marwa¯n ‘Abd Al-Ma¯lik León, Mosés de Immanuel Romano Léonin Innocent III, Pope Leovigild Innocent IV, Pope Levi Ben Gershom (Gersonides) Isabeau of Bavaria Limbourg Brothers Isidore of Seville, Saint Liudprand of Cremona Llull, Ramón J Lochner, Stefan Jacob van Maerlant López de Ayala, Pero Jacobus da Voragine López de Córdoba, Leonor Jacopo da Milano López de Mendoza, Iñigo Jacopo de Cessolis Lorenzetti, Pietro and Ambrogio Jacopone da Todi Lothair I Jacques de Vitry Lothar III Jaime (Jaume) I of Aragón-Catalonia Louis IX Jaime II Louis the Pious Jan van Boendale Louis XI Jan van Ruusbroec Luitgard of Aywières Jaufre Rudel Luna, Álvaro de Jean de Garlande Lydgate, John Jean de Meun Jeanne d’Arc M Jeanne of Navarre Machaut, Guillaume de Jehan Bodel Macrobius Jiménez de Rada, Rodrigo Magnús Hákonarson Joachim of Fiore Maimonides Joanna I of Naples Malispini, Ricordano João I, King of Portugal Malory, Thomas Johann von Würzburg Mandeville, Jean de Johannes von Tepl Manfred John Manrique, Jorge John II the Good Mans.u¯ r, Al- John of Salisbury Marcabru John of Seville Marcel, Étienne John, Duke of Berry Marchetto da Padova Joinville, Jean de Margaret of Cortona, Saint Juan Manuel Margrethe I Judith, Empress Marguerite d’Oingt Julian of Norwich Marguerite of Provence Julian of Toledo Marguerite Porete Justinian I Marie de France Marie d’Oignies K Marsilio of Padua Kempe, Margery Martí, Ramón Koerbecke, Johann Konrad von Würzburg Kormákr Qgmundarson Kürenberc, Der von xxiv

Martianus Capella ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ENTRIES Martini, Simone Maslama de Madrid Pedro Alfonso, or Petrus Alfonsi Matilda, Empress Pedro I the Cruel, King of Castile Matteo da Perugia Pedro III, King of Aragón Matthew Paris Pegolotti, Francesco di Balduccio Maximilian Peire Cardenal Mechthild von Hackeborn Peñafort, Ramón de Mechthild von Magdeburg Pepin Meir b. Barukh of Rothenberg Pepin III the Short Meister Eckhart Pérotin Mena, Juan de Peter Comestor Mézières, Philippe de Peter Lombard Michael Scot Peter of Poitiers Molina, María de Peter the Chanter Mönch von Salzburg, Der Peter the Venerable Morton, Robert Petrarca, Francesco Moser, Lucas Petrus de Dacia Moses Ben Nah.man Philagathus of Cerami Multscher, Hans Philip II Augustus Philip III the Bold N Philip IV the Fair Nardo di Cione Philip VI Nebrija, Elio Antonio de Philip the Bold Neidhart Philip the Chancellor Nicholas III, Pope Philip the Good Nicholas of Cusa Philippe de Thaün Nicholas of Verdun Pier della Vigna Nicolaus Gerhaert von Leyden Pierre Mauclerc Nilus of Rossano Pietro Abano Notker Labeo Pisano, Andrea Pisano, Giovanni O Pisano, Nicola Ockeghem, Johannes Pleydenwurff, Hans Ockham, William of Polo, Marco Offa Potter, Dirc Óláfr Tryggvason Power, Leonel Oliver of Paderborn Prosdocimus de Beldemandis Orcagna, Andrea di Cione Ptolemy of Lucca Oresme, Nicole Pucelle, Jean Oswald von Wolkenstein Otfrid Q Otto I Qasmu¯na Bint Isma¯’¯ıl Otto II Otto III R Otto IV Rabanus Maurus Otto of Freising Radewijns, Florens Rainald of Dassel P Ramón Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona Pacher, Michael Raoul de Houdenc Padilla, María de Raoul Glaber Paolo da Firenze “Rashi” (Solomon b. Isaac) Paschal II, Pope Reinmar der Alte Paul the Deacon Reinmar von Zwetter Pecock, Reginald Remigio dei Girolami René d’Anjou Richard de Fournival xxv

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ENTRIES Thomas à Kempis Thomas d’Angleterre Richard I Thomas of Celano Richard II Thomasîn von Zerklaere Richard III Torquemada, Tomás de Richard of Saint-Victor Torre, Alfonso de la Riemenschneider, Tillmann Toscanelli, Paolo dal Pozzo Robert de Boron Traini, Francesco Robert Guiscard Trevisa, John Robert of Anjou Trotula of Salerno Robert of Molesme Roger I U Roger II Ubertino da Casale Rolle, Richard, of Hampole Uguccione da Pisa Romuald of Ravenna, Saint Úlfr Uggason Rudolph von Ems Ulrich von Etzenbach Rustico Filippi Ulrich von Liechtenstein Rutebeuf Ulrich von Türheim Urban II, Pope S Sacchetti, Franco V Sæmundr Sigfússon inn fróði Valera, Diego de Saladin (Sala¯h al-D¯ın Yu¯ suf b. Ayya¯ b) Van der Weyden, Rogier Salimbene de Adam Van Eyck, Jan Salutati, Coluccio Veneziano, Paolo Sancho III, King of Navarre Vilanova, Arnau de Sancho IV, King of Castile Villani, Giovanni Saxo Grammaticus Villard de Honnecourt Schongauer, Martin Villehardouin, Geoffroi de Sercambi, Giovanni Villon, François Seuse, Heinrich Vincent de Beauvais Shem Tov of Carrión Shushtar¯ı, Al-, Abu¯ Al-H. asan W Siger of Brabant Wace Sighvatr Þorðarson Walafrid Strabo Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester Walla¯dah Bint Al-Mustafki Sluter, Claus Walter of Châtillon Snorri Sturluson Walther von der Vogelweide Spinello Aretino Wenceslas Stainreuter, Leopold Werner der Gärtner Stephen II, Pope Wiligelmus Stephen Langton Willem of Heldegaersberch Stoss, Veit William Durandus Stricker, Der William I Sturla Þórðarson William of Auvergne Suchenwirt, Peter William of Conches Suger William of Ockham Sunesen, Anders William of Saint-Amour Sven Haraldsson (Forkbeard) William of Saint-Thierry Sverrir Sigurðarson Wirnt von Grafenberg Syrlin, Jörg the Elder and Jörg the Younger Wittenweiler, Heinrich Witz, Konrad T Wolfram von Eschenbach Tannhäuser, Der Wolgemut, Michael Theodora Wulfstan of York Theodulf of Orléans Wyclif, John Thibaut de Champagne Thietmar of Merseburg xxvi

THEMATIC LIST OF ENTRIES Artists and Architects Sluter, Claus Altichiero da Zevio Spinello Aretino Arnolfo di Cambio Stoss, Veit Bonaventura Berlinghieri Traini, Francesco Brailes, William de Van der Weyden, Rogier Campin, Robert Van Eyck, Jan Cimabue Veneziano , Paolo Conrad von Soest Villard de Honnecourt Daddi, Bernardo Wiligelmus Duccio di Buoninsegna Witz, Konrad Erhart, Michel Wolgemut, Michael Fouquet, Jean Francke, Master Authors Frueauf, Rueland, the Elder Abélard, Peter Gaddi, Taddeo Abraham Bar H. iyya (H. ayya) Gerthener, Madern Abravanel, Isaac Giotto di Bondone Adam de la Halle Giusto dé Menabuoi Adam of Bremen Grasser, Erasmus Ælfric Koerbecke, Johann Alain de Lille Limbourg Brothers Albertanus of Brescia Lochner, Stefan Albertino Mussato Lorenzetti, Pietro and Ambrogio Albertus Magnus Martini, Simone Alcuin Matthew Paris Aldhelm Moser, Lucas Alexander of Hales Multscher, Hans Alfonso X, El Sabio, King of Castile and León Nardo di Cione Alfred the Great Nicholas of Verdun Alvarus, Paulus Nicolaus Gerhaert von Leyden Andreas Capellanus Orcagna, Andrea di Cione Andrew of Saint-Victor Pacher, Michael Angelo Clareno Pisano, Andrea Antonio Pucci Pisano, Giovanni Aquinas, Thomas Pisano, Nicola Archpoet Pleydenwurff, Hans Aristippus, Henry Pucelle, Jean Arnórr Þórðarson jarlaskáld Riemenschneider, Tillmann Asher b. Yeh. iel Schongauer, Martin xxvii

THEMATIC LIST OF ENTRIES Daniel the Abbot Dante Alighieri Averroës, Abu ‘L-Wal¯ıd Muh. ammad B. Ah. mad B. David von Augsburg Rushd Deschamps, Eustache Dhuoda Avicenna Díaz de Games, Gutierre (El Victorial) Bacon, Roger Digulleville, Guillaume de Beatrijs van Nazareth Dirc van Delf Beatus of Liébana Douglas, Gavin Beaumanoir, Philippe de Remi, Sire de Dunbar, William Bede the Venerable Duns Scotus, John Beheim, Michael Ebner, Margaretha Benedict of Nursia, Saint Egeria Benjamin of Tudela Eike von Repgow Benoît de Sainte-Maure Eilhart von Oberg Berceo, Gonzalo de Einarr Helgason skálaglamm Bernard Gui Einarr Skúlason Bernard of Chartres Einhard Bernard of Clairvaux Eiximenis, Francesc Bernard Silvestris Elisabeth von Schönau Bernart de Ventadorn Eriugena, Johannes Scottus Berno von Reichenau Eugenius of Palermo Béroul Eulogius of Córdoba Bersuire, Pierre Eyvindr Finnsson skáldaspillir Bjarni Kolbeinsson Ezzo Boccaccio, Giovanni Fazio degli Uberti Boethius de Dacia Flores, Juan de Bonagiunta Orbicciani degli Averardi Folz, Hans Bonaventure, Saint Francesco d’Accorso Boppe, Meister Frau Ava Bragi Boddason Frauenlob Brunetto Latini Friedrick von Hausen Buoncompagno da Signa Froissart, Jean Burchard of Mount Sion Fulbert of Chartres Byrhtferth Gautier d’Arras Cædmon Gautier de Coinci Caesarius of Heisterbach Geoffrey of Monmouth Cartagena, Alfonso de Gerhoh of Reichersberg Cartagena, Teresa de Gershom b. Judah Cassian, John Gerson, Jean Cassiodorus Gertrud von Helfta Cavalcanti, Guido Giacomino da Verona Cavallini, Pietro Giacomo da Lentini Caxton, William Gilbert of Poitiers Cecco Angiolieri Giles of Rome Cecco d’Ascoli Giovanni del Virgilio Charlesd’Orléans Giovanni di Piano Carpini Chartier, Alain Godfrey of Viterbo Chaucer, Geoffrey Gottfried von Straßburg Chrétien de Troyes Gottschalk Christine de Pizan Gower, John Cino da Pistoia Gratian Columbus, Christopher Greban, Arnoul Commynes, Philippe de Gregory of Tours Compagni, Dino Grosseteste, Robert Cynewulf D’ailly, Pierre Damian, Peter xxviii

Guibert de Nogent THEMATIC LIST OF ENTRIES Guido d’Arezzo Guido delle Colonne Jiménez de Rada, Rodrigo Guilhem IX Joachim of Fiore Guillaume de Lorris Johann von Würzburg Guinizzelli, Guido Johannes von Tepl Guittone d’Arezzo John of Salisbury Guzmán, Nuño de John of Seville H. afs.a Bint Al-Hayy Ar-Rakuniyya Joinville, Jean de Harpestreng, Henrik Juan Manuel Hartmann von Aue Julian of Norwich Heinric Julian of Toledo Heinrich der Glîcherzâre Kempe, Margery Heinrich von dem Türlin Konrad von Würzburg Heinrich von Melk Kormákr Ogmundarson Heinrich von Morungen Kürenberc, Der von Heinrich von Veldeke La Vigne, André de Héloïse Lanfranc of Bec Henryson, Robert Langmann, Adelheid Hermann von Fritzlar Laufenberg, Heinrich Herrad von Hohenburg Laვamon or Layamon Herrand von Wildonie Leodegundia Hildegard von Bingen León, Mosés de Hilton, Walter Levi Ben Gershom (Gersonides) Hoccleve, Thomas Liudprand of Cremona Hrabanus Maurus Llull, Ramón Hrosvit of Gandersheim López de Ayala, Pero Hugh of Saint-Victor López de Córdoba, Leonor Hugo von Trimberg López de Mendoza, Iñigo Hugues de Saint-Cher Lydgate, John Humility of Faenza Machaut, Guillaume de Ibn Adret, Solomon Macrobius Ibn Dau¯d, Abraham Maimonides Ibn Ezra, Moses Malispini, Ricordano Ibn Khaldu¯n Malory, Thomas Ibn Quzma¯n Mandeville, Jean de Ibn Sa’¯ıd, Abu¯ ‘L-H. asan ‘Al¯ı B. Mu¯ sa¯ B. Muh. ammad Manrique, Jorge Marcabru B. ‘Abd al-Malik B. Sa’¯ıd Margaret of Cortona, Saint Ibn Zaydu¯n Marguerite Porete Ibn Zuhr, Abu¯ Marwa¯n ‘Abd Al-Ma¯lik Marie de France Immanuel Romano Marsilio of Padua Innocent III, Pope Martí, Ramón Isidore of Seville, Saint Martianus Capella Jacob van Maerlant Matthew Paris Jacobus da Voragine Mechthild von Hackeborn Jacopo da Milano Mechthild von Magdeburg Jacopo de Cessolis Meir b. Barukh of Rothenberg Jacopone da Todi Meister Eckhart Jacques de Vitry Mena, Juan de Jan van Boendale Mézières, Philippe de Jan van Ruusbroec Michael Scot Jaufre Rudel Nebrija, Elio Antonio de Jean de Garlande Neidhart Jean de Meun Nicholas of Cusa Jehan Bodel Notker Labeo Ockham, William of xxix

THEMATIC LIST OF ENTRIES Stainreuter, Leopold Stephen Langton Oresme, Nicole Stricker, Der Oswald von Wolkenstein Sturla Þórðarson Otfrid Suchenwirt, Peter Otto of Freising Suger Paul the Deacon Sunesen, Anders Pecock, Reginald Tannhäuser, Der Pedro Alfonso, or Petrus Alfonsi Theodulf of Orléans Pedro III, King of Aragón Thibaut de Champagne Pegolotti, Francesco di Balduccio Thietmar of Merseburg Peire Cardenal Thomas à Kempis Peñafort, Ramón de Thomas d’Angleterre Peter Comestor Thomas of Celano Peter Lombard Thomasîn von Zerklaere Peter of Poitiers Torre, Alfonso de la Peter the Chanter Trevisa, John Peter the Venerable Trotula of Salerno Petrarca, Francesco Ubertino da Casale Petrus de Dacia Uguccione da Pisa Philagathus of Cerami Úlfr Uggason Philipthe Chancellor Ulrich von Etzenbach Philipupe de Thaün Ulrich von Liechtenstein Pier della Vigna Ulrich von Türheim Pietro Abano Valera, Diego de Polo, Marco Vilanova, Arnau de Potter, Dirc Villani, Giovanni Prosdocimus de Beldemandis Villehardouin, Geoffroi de Ptolemy of Lucca Villon, François Qasmu¯na Bint Isma¯’¯ıl Vincent de Beauvais Rabanus Maurus Wace Raoul de Houdenc Walafrid Strabo Raoul Glaber Walla¯dah Bint Al-Mustafki “Rashi” (Solomon b. Isaac) Walter of Châtillon Reinmar der Alte Walther von der Vogelweide Reinmar von Zwetter Werner der Gärtner Remigio dei Girolami Willem of Hildegaersberch René d’Anjou William Durandus Richard de Fournival William of Auvergne Richard of Saint-Victor William of Conches Robert de Boron William of Ockham Rolle, Richard, of Hampole William of Saint-Amour Rudolph von Ems William of Saint-Thierry Rustico Filippi Wirnt von Grafenberg Rutebeuf Wittenweiler, Heinrich Sacchetti, Franco Wolfram von Eschenbach Sæmundr Sigfússon inn fróði Wulfstan of York Salimbene de Adam Wyclif, John Salutati, Coluccio Saxo Grammaticus Merchants and Businessmen Sercambi, Giovanni Benjamin of Tudela Seuse, Heinrich Caxton, William Shem Tov of Carrión Cœur, Jacques Shushtar¯ı, Al-, Abu¯ Al-H. asan Compagni, Dino Siger of Brabant Sighvatr Þorðarson Snorri Sturluson xxx

Gutenberg, Johann THEMATIC LIST OF ENTRIES Henrique, Prince of Portugal Marcel, Étienne Brunetto Latini Pegolotti, Francesco di Balduccio Cangrande della Scala Syrlin, Jörg the Elder and Jörg the Younger Charlemagne Charles II the Bad Musicians Charles IV Beheim, Michael Charles V the Wise Bernart de Ventadorn Charles VI Berno von Reichenau Charles VII Busnoys, Antoine Charles d’Orléans Ciconia, Johannes Charles Martel Dufay, Guillaume Clovis I Dunstable, John Cnut Encina, Juan del Conrad II Grocheio, Johannes de Constance Guido d’Arezzo Díaz de Vivar, Rodrigo Guilhem IX Dinis, King of Portugal Hildegard von Bingen Edward I Jaufre Rudel Edward III Landini, Francesco Edward the Confessor Laufenberg, Heinrich Eleanor of Aquitaine Léonin Enrique II, King of Castile Machaut, Guillaume de Erik, Saint Marcabru Fernando I, King of León Marchetto da Padova Fernando III, King of Castile Matteo da Perugia Francesco d’Accorso Mönch von Salzburg, Der Frederick I Barbarossa Morton, Robert Frederick II Ockeghem, Johannes Frederick III Paolo da Firenze Godefroi de Bouillon Peire Cardenal Guesclin, Bertrand du Pérotin Hákon góði (“the good”) Haraldsson Philip the Chancellor Hákon Hákonarson Power, Leonel Haraldr harðraði (“hard-ruler”) Sigurðarson Reinmar der Alte Haraldr hárfagri (“fair-hair”) Hálfdanarson Reinmar von Zwetter Harold Godwinson Sacchetti, Franco Hawkwood, Sir John Tannhäuser, Der Henrique, Prince of Portugal Thibaut de Champagne Henry I Walther von der Vogelweide Henry I of Saxony Henry II Political Leaders Henry III Afonso III, King of Portugal Henry IV Alfonso V, King of Aragón, The Magnanimous Henry IV, Emperor Alfonso VI, King of León-Castile Henry V Alfonso X, El Sabio, King of Castile and León Henry VI Alfred the Great Henry VII of Luxembourg Amadeo VI, Count of Savoy Henry the Lion Anno Hugh Capet Bedford, John Duke of Isabeau of Bavaria Blanche of Castile Jaime (Jaume) I of Aragón-Catalonia Bohemond of Taranto Jaime II Jeanne d’Arc Jeanne of Navarre Joanna I of Naples João I, King of Portugal xxxi

THEMATIC LIST OF ENTRIES Saladin (Sala¯h al-D¯ın Yu¯ suf b. Ayya¯b) Salutati, Coluccio John Sancho III, King of Navarre John II the Good Sancho IV, King of Castile John, Duke of Berry Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester Judith, Empress Snorri Sturluson Justinian I Sven Haraldsson (Forkbeard) Leo III, Emperor Sverrir Sigurðarson Leovigild Theodora López de Mendoza, Iñigo Wenceslas Lothair I William I Lothar III Louis IX Religious Figures Louis XI Abélard, Peter Louis the Pious Abravanel, Isaac Luna, Álvaro de Ælfric Magnús Hákonarson Æthelwold of Winchester Manfred Albertus Magnus Manrique, Jorge Albornoz, Gil Alvarez Carrillo De Mans.u¯r, Al- Alcuin Marcel, Étienne Aldhelm Margrethe I Andrew of Saint-Victor Marguerite of Provence Angela da Foligno, Saint Marsilio of Padua Anselm of Bec Matilda, Empress Anselm of Laon Maximilian Ansgar, Saint Molina, María de Anthony of Padua, Saint Offa Arnold of Brescia Óláfr Tryggvason Asher b. Yeh. iel Otto I Augustine of Canterbury Otto II Bacon, Roger Otto III Beatrijs van Nazareth Otto IV Beatus of Liebana Padilla, María de Becket, Thomas Pedro I the Cruel, King of Castile Bede the Venerable Pedro III, King of Aragón Benedict of Nursia, Saint Pepin Bernard Gui Pepin III the Short Bernard of Clairvaux Philip II Augustus Berno von Reichenau Philip III the Bold Bernward of Hildesheim Philip IV the Fair Bersuire, Pierre Philip VI Berthold von Regensburg Philipthe Bold Birgitta, Saint Philipthe Good Bonaventure, Saint Pier della Vigna Boniface VIII, Pope Pierre Mauclerc Caesarius of Heisterbach Rainald of Dassel Cartagena, Alfonso de Ramón Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona Cassian, John René d’Anjou Catherine of Siena, Saint Richard I Celestine V, Pope Richard II Clare, Saint Richard III Clement V, Pope Robert Guiscard Conrad of Marburg Robert of Anjou Roger I Roger II xxxii

Conrad of Urach THEMATIC LIST OF ENTRIES D’ailly, Pierre Damian, Peter León, Mosés de David von Augsburg Liudprand of Cremona Dolcino, Fra Luitgard of Aywières Dominic, Saint Maimonides Duns Scotus, John Marguerite d’Oingt Dunstan of Canterbury Marguerite Porete Ebner, Margaretha Marie d’Oignies Elisabeth von Schönau Martí, Ramón Elizabeth of Hungary Mechthild von Hackeborn Engelbert of Berg Mechthild von Magdeburg Erik, Saint Meir b. Barukh of Rothenberg Eriugena, Johannes Scottus Meister Eckhart Eulogius of Córdoba Moses Ben Nah.man Ferrer, Vicente, Saint Nicholas III, Pope Francis of Assisi, Saint Nicholas of Cusa Fulbert of Chartres Nilus of Rossano Gelmírez, Diego, Archbishop of Compostela Ockham, William of Gerhoh of Reichersberg Oliver of Paderborn Gershom b. Judah Otto of Freising Gerson, Jean Paschal II, Pope Gertrud von Helfta Pecock, Reginald Gilbert of Poitiers Peñafort, Ramón de Giles of Rome Peter Comestor Giovanni di Piano Carpini Peter Lombard Gottschalk Peter of Poitiers Gregory I, Pope Peter the Chanter Gregory VII, Pope Peter the Venerable Grosseteste, Robert Rabanus Maurus Guzmán, Domingo de Radewijns, Florens Hadewijch “Rashi” (Solomon b. Isaac) Hadrian I, Pope Remigio dei Girolami Hadrian IV, Pope Richard de Fournival Herrad von Hohenburg Richard of Saint-Victor Hild Robert of Molesme Hrabanus Maurus Rolle, Richard, of Hampole Hrosvit of Gandersheim Romuald of Ravenna, Saint Hugh of Saint-Victor Sæmundr Sigfússon inn fróði Hugues de Saint-Cher Seuse, Heinrich Humility of Faenza Shushtar¯ı, Al-, Abu¯ Al-H. asan Ibn Adret, Solomon Siger of Brabant Ibn Dau¯d, Abraham Stephen II, Pope Innocent III, Pope Stephen Langton Innocent IV, Pope Suger Isidore of Seville, Saint Sunesen, Anders Jacques de Vitry Theodulf of Orléans Jiménez de Rada, Rodrigo Torquemada, Tomás de Joachim of Fiore Ubertino da Casale John of Salisbury Urban II, Pope Julian of Toledo William Durandus Lanfranc of Bec William of Auvergne Langmann, Adelheid William of Ockham Leo IX, Pope William of Saint-Amour William of Saint-Thierry Wulfstan of York Wyclif, John xxxiii

THEMATIC LIST OF ENTRIES Birgitta, Saint Blanche of Castile Scientists Cartagena, Teresa de Abraham Bar H. iyya (H. ayya) Catherine of Siena, Saint Albertus Magnus Christine de Pizan Alfonso X, El Sabio, King of Castile and León Clare, Saint Aristippus, Henry Constance Averroës, Abu ‘L-Wal¯ıd Muh. ammad B. Ah. mad B. Dhuoda Ebner, Margaretha Rushd Egeria Byrhtferth Eleanor of Aquitaine Cecco d’Ascoli Elisabeth von Schönau Eugenius of Palermo Elizabeth of Hungary Fulbert of Chartres Frau Ava Harpestreng, Henrik Gertrud von Helfta Ibn Zuhr, Abu¯ Marwa¯n ‘Abd Al-Ma¯lik Hadewijch John of Seville H. afs.a Bint Al-Hayy Ar-Rakuniyya Laufenberg, Heinrich Héloïse Levi Ben Gershom (Gersonides) Herrad von Hohenburg Llull, Ramón Hild Martianus Capella Hildegard von Bingen Maslama de Madrid Hrosvit of Gandersheim Michael Scot Humility of Faenza Oresme, Nicole Isabeau of Bavaria Pedro Alfonso, or Petrus Alfonsi Jeanne d’Arc Philipupe de Thaün Jeanne of Navarre Pietro Abano Joanna I of Naples Prosdocimus de Beldemandis Judith, Empress Toscanelli, Paolo dal Pozzo Julian of Norwich Trotula of Salerno Kempe, Margery Vilanova, Arnau de Langmann, Adelheid William of Conches Leodegundia López de Córdoba, Leonor Travelers Luitgard of Aywières Angelo Clareno Margaret of Cortona, Saint Benjamin of Tudela Margrethe I Burchard of Mount Sion Marguerite d’Oingt Cão, Diogo Marguerite of Provence Columbus, Christopher Marguerite Porete Daniel the Abbot Marie de France Dias, Bartolomeu Marie d’Oignies Egeria Matilda, Empress Gama, Vasco da Mechthild von Hackeborn Giovanni di Piano Carpini Mechthild von Magdeburg Guzmán, Nuño de Molina, María de Ibn Sa’¯ıd, Abu¯ ‘L-H. asan ‘Al¯ı B. Mu¯ sa¯ B. Muh. ammad Padilla, María de Qasmu¯na Bint Isma¯’¯ıl B. ‘Abd al-Malik B. Sa’¯ıd Theodora Martí, Ramón Trotula of Salerno Valera, Diego de Walla¯dah Bint Al-Mustafki Notable Women Angela da Foligno, Saint Beatrijs van Nazareth xxxiv

England ENTRIES BY REGION Ælfric Æthelwold of Winchester Hild Alcuin Hilton, Walter Aldhelm Hoccleve, Thomas Alfred the Great John Alexander of Hales John of Salisbury Anselm of Bec Julian of Norwich Augustine of Canterbury Kempe, Margery Bacon, Roger Laვamon or Layamon Becket, Thomas Lydgate, John Bede the Venerable Malory, Thomas Bedford, John Duke of Matthew Paris Brailes, William de Michael Scot Byrhtferth Morton, Robert Cædmon Ockham, William of Caxton, William Offa Chaucer, Geoffrey Pecock, Reginald Cnut Power, Leonel Cynewulf Richard I Douglas, Gavin Richard II Dunbar, William Richard III Duns Scotus, John Rolle, Richard, of Hampole Dunstable, John Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester Dunstan of Canterbury Stephen Langton Edward I Theodulf of Orléans Edward III Thomas d’Angleterre Edward the Confessor Trevisa, John Eleanor of Aquitaine William I Geoffrey of Monmouth William of Ockham Gower, John Wulfstan of York Grosseteste, Robert Wyclif, John Harold Godwinson Hawkwood, Sir John France Henry I Abélard, Peter Henry II Adam de la Halle Henry IV Alain de Lille Henry V Andreas Capellanus Henryson, Robert Andrew of Saint-Victor Anselm of Bec xxxv

ENTRIES BY REGION Jacques de Vitry Jaufre Rudel Anselm of Laon Jean de Garlande Aquinas, Thomas Jean de Meun Beaumanoir, Philippe de Remi, Sire de Jeanne d’Arc Benoît de Sainte-Maure Jeanne of Navarre Bernard Gui Jehan Bodel Bernard of Chartres John II the Good Bernard of Clairvaux John, Duke of Berry Bernard Silvestris Joinville, Jean de Bernart de Ventadorn La Vigne, André de Béroul Lanfranc of Bec Bersuire, Pierre Léonin Blanche of Castile Limbourg Brothers Bonaventure, Saint Lothair I Busnoys, Antoine Louis IX Campin, Robert Louis XI Cassian, John Louis the Pious Charles II the Bad Luitgard of Aywières Charles V the Wise Machaut, Guillaume de Charles VI Mandeville, Jean de Charles VII Marcabru Charlesd’Orléans Marcel, Étienne CharlesMartel Marguerite d’Oingt Chartier, Alain Marguerite of Provence Chrétien de Troyes Marguerite Porete Christine de Pizan Marie de France Clovis I Marie d’Oignies Cœur, Jacques Mézières, Philippe de Commynes, Philippe de Ockeghem, Johannes D’ailly, Pierre Oresme, Nicole Deschamps, Eustache Peire Cardenal Digulleville, Guillaume de Pepin Dufay, Guillaume Pepin III the Short Einhard Pérotin Eriugena, Johannes Scottus Peter Comestor Fouquet, Jean Peter Lombard Froissart, Jean Peter of Poitiers Fulbert of Chartres Peter the Chanter Gautier d’Arras Peter the Venerable Gautier de Coinci Philip II Augustus Gerson, Jean Philip III the Bold Gilbert of Poitiers Philip IV the Fair Giles of Rome Philip VI Godefroi de Bouillon Philip the Bold Greban, Arnoul Philip the Chancellor Gregory of Tours Philip the Good Grocheio, Johannes de Philippe de Thaün Guesclin, Bertrand du Pierre Mauclerc Guibert de Nogent Pucelle, Jean Guilhem IX Raoul de Houdenc Guillaume de Lorris Raoul Glaber Héloïse “Rashi” (Solomon b. Isaac) Hugh Capet René d’Anjou Hugh of Saint-Victor Richard de Fournival Hugues de Saint-Cher Isabeau of Bavaria xxxvi

Richard of Saint-Victor ENTRIES BY REGION Robert de Boron Robert of Molesme Frederick I Barbarossa Rutebeuf Frederick II Sluter, Claus Frederick III Suger Friedrick von Hausen Thibaut de Champagne Frueauf, Rueland, the Elder Thomas d’Angleterre Gerhoh of Reichersberg Van Eyck, Jan Gershom b. Judah Villard de Honnecourt Gerthener, Madern Villehardouin, Geoffroi de Gertrud von Helfta Villon, François Gottfried von Straßburg Vincent de Beauvais Gottschalk Wace Grasser, Erasmus Walafrid Strabo Gutenberg, Johann Walter of Châtillon Hartmann von Aue William of Auvergne Heinrich der Glîcherzâre William of Conches Heinrich von dem Türlin William of Saint-Amour Heinrich von Melk William of Saint-Thierry Heinrich von Morungen Heinrich von Veldeke Germany Henry I of Saxony Adam of Bremen Henry III Albertus Magnus Henry IV, Emperor Anno Henry the Lion Archpoet Henry VI Asher b. Yeḥiel Hermann von Fritzlar Beheim, Michael Herrad von Hohenburg Berno von Reichenau Herrand von Wildonie Bernward of Hildesheim Hildegard von Bingen Berthold von Regensburg Hrabanus Maurus Boppe, Meister Hrosvit of Gandersheim Burchard of Mount Sion Hugo von Trimberg Caesarius of Heisterbach Johann von Würzburg Charlemagne Johannes von Tepl Charles IV Judith, Empress Conrad II Koerbecke, Johann Conrad of Marburg Konrad von Würzburg Conrad of Urach Kürenberc, Der von Conrad von Soest Langmann, Adelheid David von Augsburg Laufenberg, Heinrich Dhuoda Leo IX, Pope Ebner, Margaretha Lochner, Stefan Eike von Repgow Lothar III Eilhart von Oberg Louis the Pious Elisabeth von Schönau Matilda, Empress Elizabeth of Hungary Maximilian Engelbert of Berg Mechthild von Hackeborn Erhart, Michel Mechthild von Magdeburg Ezzo Meir b. Barukh of Rothenberg Folz, Hans Meister Eckhart Francke, Master Mönch von Salzburg, Der Frau Ava Moser, Lucas Frauenlob Multscher, Hans Neidhart Nicholas of Cusa Nicholas of Verdun xxxvii

ENTRIES BY REGION Benjamin of Tudela Berceo, Gonzalo de Nicolaus Gerhaert von Leyden Cão, Diogo Notker Labeo Cartagena, Alfonso de Oliver of Paderborn Cartagena, Teresa de Oswald von Wolkenstein Columbus, Christopher Otfrid Dias, Bartolomeu Otto I Díaz de Games, Gutierre (El Victorial) Otto II Díaz de Vivar, Rodrigo Otto III Dinis, King of Portugal Otto IV Egeria Otto of Freising Eiximenis, Francesc Pacher, Michael Encina, Juan del Pleydenwurff, Hans Enrique II, King of Castile Rabanus Maurus Eulogius of Córdoba Radewijns, Florens Fernando I, King of León Rainald of Dassel Fernando III, King of Castile Reinmar der Alte Ferrer, Vicente, Saint Reinmar von Zwetter Flores, Juan de Riemenschneider, Tillmann Gama, Vasco da Rudolph von Ems Gelmírez, Diego, Archbishop of Compostela Schongauer, Martin Guzmán, Domingo de Seuse, Heinrich Guzmán, Nuño de Stainreuter, Leopold H. afs.a Bint Al-Hayy Ar-Rakuniyya Stoss, Veit Henrique, Prince of Portugal Stricker, Der Ibn Adret, Solomon Suchenwirt, Peter Ibn Dau¯d, Abraham Syrlin, Jörg the Elder and Jörg the Younger Ibn Ezra, Moses Tannhäuser, Der Ibn H. azm Thietmar of Merseburg Ibn Khaldu¯n Thomas à Kempis Ibn Quzma¯n Thomasîn von Zerklaere Ibn Sa’¯ıd, Abu¯ ‘L-H. asan ‘Al¯ı B. Mu¯sa¯ B. Muh. ammad Ulrich von Etzenbach Ulrich von Liechtenstein B. ‘Abd al-Malik B. Sa’¯ıd Ulrich von Türheim Ibn Zaydu¯n Walther von der Vogelweide Ibn Zuhr, Abu¯ Marwa¯n ‘Abd Al-Ma¯lik Wenceslas Isidore of Seville, Saint Werner der Gärtner Jaime (Jaume) I of Aragón-Catalonia Wirnt von Grafenberg Jaime II Wittenweiler, Heinrich Jiménez de Rada, Rodrigo Witz, Konrad João I, King of Portugal Wolfram von Eschenbach John of Seville Wolgemut, Michael Juan Manuel Julian of Toledo Iberia Leodegundia Abraham Bar H. iyya (H. ayya) León, Mosés de Abravanel, Isaac Leovigild Afonso III, King of Portugal Levi Ben Gershom (Gersonides) Albornoz, Gil Alvarez Carrillo De Llull, Ramón Alfonso V, King of Aragón, The Magnanimous López de Ayala, Pero Alfonso VI, King of León-Castile López de Córdoba, Leonor Alfonso X, El Sabio, King of Castile and León López de Mendoza, Iñigo Alvarus, Paulus Luna, Álvaro de Averroës, Abu ‘L-Wal¯ıd Muh. ammad B. Ah. mad B. Maimonides Manrique, Jorge Rushd Mans.u¯ r, Al- Beatus of Liebana xxxviii

Martí, Ramón ENTRIES BY REGION Maslama de Madrid Mena, Juan de Ciconia, Johannes Molina, María de Cimabue Moses Ben Nah.man Cino da Pistoia Nebrija, Elio Antonio de Clare, Saint Padilla, María de Clement V, Pope Pedro Alfonso, or Petrus Alfonsi Compagni, Dino Pedro I the Cruel, King of Castile Constance Pedro III, King of Aragón Daddi, Bernardo Peñafort, Ramón de Damian, Peter Qasmu¯na Bint Isma¯’¯ıl Dante Alighieri Ramón Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona Dolcino, Fra Sancho III, King of Navarre Dominic, Saint Sancho IV, King of Castile Duccio di Buoninsegna Shem Tov of Carrión Eugenius of Palermo Shushtar¯ı, Al-, Abu¯ Al-H. asan Fazio degli Uberti Torquemada, Tomás de Francesco d’Accorso Torre, Alfonso de la Francis of Assisi, Saint Valera, Diego de Frederick II Vilanova, Arnau de Gaddi, Taddeo Walla¯dah Bint Al-Mustafki Giacomino da Verona Giacomo da Lentini Italy Giotto di Bondone Albertanus of Brescia Giovanni del Virgilio Albertino Mussato Giovanni di Piano Carpini Altichiero da Zevio Giusto de’ Menabuoi Amadeo VI, Count of Savoy Godfrey of Viterbo Angela da Foligno, Saint Gratian Angelo Clareno Gregory I, Pope Anthony of Padua, Saint Gregory VII, Pope Antonio Pucci Guido d’Arezzo Aquinas, Thomas Guido delle Colonne Aristippus, Henry Guinizzelli, Guido Arnold of Brescia Guittone d’Arezzo Arnolfo di Cambio Hadrian I, Pope Avicenna Hadrian IV, Pope Benedict of Nursia, Saint Humility of Faenza Boccaccio, Giovanni Immanuel Romano Bohemond of Taranto Innocent III, Pope Bonagiunta Orbicciani degli Averardi Innocent IV, Pope Bonaventura Berlinghieri Jacobus da Voragine Bonaventure, Saint Jacopo da Milano Boniface VIII, Pope Jacopo de Cessolis Brunetto Latini Jacopone da Todi Buoncompagno da Signa Joachim of Fiore Cangrande della Scala Joanna I of Naples Cassiodorus Justinian I Catherine of Siena, Saint Landini, Francesco Cavalcanti, Guido Leo III, Emperor Cavallini, Pietro Leo IX, Pope Cecco Angiolieri Liudprand of Cremona Cecco d’Ascoli Lorenzetti, Pietro and Ambrogio Celestine V, Pope Macrobius Malispini, Ricordano Manfred Marchetto da Padova xxxix

ENTRIES BY REGION Low Countries Beatrijs van Nazareth Margaret of Cortona, Saint Dirc van Delf Marsilio of Padua Francke, Master Martianus Capella Hadewijch Martini, Simone Heinric Matteo da Perugia Heinrich von Veldeke Nardo di Cione Henry VII of Luxembourg Nicholas III, Pope Jacob van Maerlant Nilus of Rossano Jan van Boendale Orcagna, Andrea di Cione Jan van Ruusbroec Paolo da Firenze Potter, Dirc Paschal II, Pope Siger of Brabant Paul the Deacon Van der Weyden, Rogier Pegolotti, Francesco di Balduccio Van Eyck, Jan Petrarca, Francesco Willem of Hildegaersberch Philagathus of Cerami Pier della Vigna Scandinavia Pietro Abano Ansgar, Saint Pisano, Andrea Arnórr Þóðarson jarlaskáld Pisano, Giovanni Birgitta, Saint Pisano, Nicola Bjarni Kolbeinsson Polo, Marco Boethius de Dacia Prosdocimus de Beldemandis Bragi Boddason Ptolemy of Lucca Cnut Remigio dei Girolami Einarr Helgason skálaglamm Robert Guiscard Einarr Skúlason Robert of Anjou Erik, Saint Roger I Eyvindr Finnsson skáldaspillir Roger II Hákon góði (“the good”) Haraldsson Romuald of Ravenna, Saint Hákon Hákonarson Rustico Filippi Haraldr harðraði (“hard-ruler”) Sigurðarson Sacchetti, Franco Haraldr hárfagri (“fair-hair”) Hálfdanarson Salimbene de Adam Harpestreng, Henrik Salutati, Coluccio Kormákr Ogmundarson Sercambi, Giovanni Magnús Hákonarson Spinello Aretino Margrethe I Stephen II, Pope Óláfr Tryggvason Theodora Petrus de Dacia Thomas of Celano Sæmundr Sigfússon inn fróði Toscanelli, Paolo dal Pozzo Saxo Grammaticus Traini, Francesco Sighvatr Þorðarson Trotula of Salerno Snorri Sturluson Ubertino da Casale Sturla Þórðarson Uguccione da Pisa Sunesen, Anders Urban II, Pope Sven Haraldsson (Forkbeard) Veneziano , Paolo Sverrir Sigurðarson Villani, Giovanni Úlfr Uggason Wiligelmus William Durandus xl

Regions and Peoples of Europe, Mid-Fourteenth Century xli

European Towns and Cities after 1200 xlii

Scandinavia xliii

Mediterranean Regions, Early Twelth Century xliv

A ABÉLARD, PETER (1079–1142) Héloïse became pregnant; Fulbert, unsatisfied by the secret marriage of Abélard and Héloïse, had Abélard Much of the life of Abélard, one of the most renowned castrated. Abélard and Héloïse entered the monastic 12th-century thinkers, is known from his Historia life in 1119, she at the convent of Argenteuil, near calamitatum, written ca. 1133. Born into a minor noble Paris; he at the monastery of Saint-Denis, also near family in Le Pallet, Brittany, in 1079, Abélard embarked Paris. At Saint-Denis, Abélard began teaching again, at on a career as student, then master, in various French the request of students. He earned the monks’ enmity schools. He studied with leading masters at three cathe- by suggesting that the St. Denis to whom their abbey dral schools: Roscelin (Loches), William of Champeaux was dedicated was not the same as the mystical author (Paris), and Anselm of Laon (Laon). He himself taught Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, an identification at Paris (Mont-Sainte-Geneviève, Saint-Denis [while a generally accepted in the 12th century. monk there], and the cathedral school at Notre-Dame), Melun, Corbeil, Laon, and the Paraclete (near Troyes). Abélard’s Historia calamitatum chronicles the love An intellectual combatant, at Paris he challenged Will- affair and its aftermath, particularly Abélard’s career. A liam of Champeaux on the existence of universals and subsequent series of letters exchanged between Abélard at Laon criticized Anselm as lacking theological insight and Héloïse reveals her deep attachment to him, his and dialectical skills. Abélard himself was harshly growing concern for her and her sister nuns, and his criticized and rebuked. In 1121, a council at Soissons efforts to provide them with sermons, hymns, and a found him guilty of heresy concerning the Trinity and monastic rule. The authenticity of the correspondence required him to burn his treatise On the Trinity and Unity has been challenged in recent years, but the consensus of God (or Theologia “Summi Boni”). In the late 1130s, is that the letters represent a genuine exchange between William of Saint-Thierry, deeply troubled by Abélard’s Abélard and Héloïse. Theologia Christiana, wrote to Bernard of Clairvaux, who had Abélard summoned to a council at Sens in June Abélard finally left Saint-Denis and built a hermitage 1140, where he was charged with heresy. The council dedicated to the Paraclete at a remote spot near Troyes, condemned nineteen points in Abélard’s theology; the where he taught students who sought him out. He later pope soon thereafter also condemned Abélard. Follow- gave the land and buildings to Héloïse and her sister nuns ing the condemnation at Sens, the Cluniac abbot Peter for a convent after they were ejected from Argenteuil by the Venerable offered Abélard a refuge at Cluny. Ac- Suger of Saint-Denis. In 1126, Abélard became abbot cording to Peter, Bernard and Abélard were reconciled of Saint-Gildas de Rhuys in Brittany; after an abortive before Abélard died in April 1142 at Saint-Marcel, a attempt to reform this lax monastic establishment, he Cluniac priory near Chalons-sur-Saône. fled, probably to Paris and the schools. While teaching in the schools of Paris, Abélard be- An accomplished master of dialectic (logic), Abé- came involved in a passionate love affair with Héloïse, lard pushed vigorously for questioning in the field of possibly the niece and certainly the ward of Fulbert, theology, with the goal of arriving at truth through a canon of the cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris. Fulbert rigorous examination of conflicting opinions drawn engaged Abélard to tutor the brilliant Héloïse, but the from Scripture and authoritative writings (Augustine, two were soon making love, not studying philosophy. Gregory the Great and other popes, church councils). This approach received classic expression in Sic et non. 1

ABÉLARD, PETER ——. Opera theologica, ed. Eloi M. Buytaert. 3 vols. CCCM, 11, 12, 13. Turnhout: Brepols, 1969. Here, Abélard posed 158 theological questions, gathered statements from the tradition favoring each side of the ——. Sic et non: A Critical Edition, ed. Blanche B. Boyer and question, but offered no solution (sententia) of the dif- Richard P. McKeon. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ferences in position. 1976–77. In ethics, Abélard taught a doctrine of intentional- ——. Philosophische Schriften, ed. Bernhard Geyer. 1 vol. in 4 ity and disinterested love. In Scito te ipsum, Abélard parts. Münster: Aschendorff, 1919–33. argues that the actual deed is morally indifferent; the key to ethical behavior is the intention with which the ——. Ethics, ed. and trans. David E, Luscombe. Oxford: Clar- deed is carried out. endon, 1971. Concerning the doctrine of Christ’s atonement, Abé- ——. Historia calamitatum: texte critique avec introduction, ed. lard set forth in his commentary on the Epistle to the Jacques Monfrin. 2nd ed. Paris: Vrin, 1962. Romans a distinctive teaching, often called a “subjec- tive” theory. Abélard argued that the effect of Christ’s ——. The Story of Abélard’s Adversities, trans. Joseph T. death was not an “objective” change in the relation of Muckle. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, God and humanity (in light of human sin) as presented 1964. in Anselm of Bee’s Cur Deus homo. Rather, Christ’s death reveals self-sacrifice and absolute self-giving ——. A Dialogue of a Philosopher with a Jew and a Christian, love, which evokes in the believer a response of total trans. Pierre J. Payer. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval sacrifice and love and effects not a cosmic transaction Studies, 1979. involving divine justice but a personal and individual transformation of love and intention. ——. The Hymns of Abélard in English Verse, trans. Sister Joseph Patricia. Lanham: University Press of America, 1986. Among Abélard’s other writings are an unfinished Dialogus inter Philosophum, Judaeum, et Christianum, ——. Dialogus inter Philosophum, Judaeum et, Christianum, the Confessio fidei universalis, letters, poems, forty- ed. Rudolf Thomas. Stuttgart: Fromann, 1970. three sermons for use at the Paraclete, an Apologia, and Hexaemeron (a commentary on the six days of creation Radice, Betty, trans. The Letters of Abélard and Heloise. Har- in Genesis). Abélard left disciples but no established mondsworth: Penguin, 1974. school. Though he influenced the development of the scholastic method, especially the quaestio, in general Luscombe, David E. The School of Peter Abélard: The Influence of his contributions to theology were topical and not sys- Abelard’s Thought in the Early Scholastic Period. Cambridge: tematic. Cambridge University Press, 1969. Abélard’s poetry reveals exceptional emotional Weingart, Richard E. The Logic of Divine Love: A Critical power in lyrics on biblical and religious themes, such as Analysis of the Soteriology of Peter Abailard. Oxford: Clar- the lament (planctus) of David on the death of Jonathan, endon, 1970. which he invests with a notable sensibility of personal pain and loss. He wrote other laments, liturgical poems, Grover A. Zinn and a collection of hymns for Héloïse and the nuns at the Paraclete. In a letter, Héloïse remarks that Abélard ABRAHAM BARH. IYYA (H. AYYA) wrote popular love poems that were the talk of Paris (ca. 1070–1136) when he and Héloïse were lovers; none survives. Mathematician, astronomer, surveyor, philosopher, Peter the Venerable transferred Abélard’s body to astrologer and translator Abraham bar H. iyya lived in the Paraclete, where it was buried in the church. When Barcelona. He was known by the honorific titles Ha-Nasi Héloïse died in 1163/64, she was buried beside him. (Hebrew: “the prince”) and Savasorda (Latin corruption Their remains were taken to Paris when the Paraclete of the Arabic: .sāh. ib al-shur.ta (“master of the guard”), was destroyed after the Revolution, and they now rest which indicate that he held high offices in both the Jew- in a tomb in the cemetery of Pere-La chaise. ish and the Catalonian communities. See also Anselm of Bec; Anselm of Laon; Nine works by him are known, all written in Hebrew. Bernard of Clairvaux He was the first medieval author to write major philo- sophic and scientific works in Hebrew, and many of his Further Reading termina technica are still used in modern Hebrew (e.g., qeshet = arc, ma῾alah = degree, merkaz = center, shoq Abélard, Peter. Opera omnia. PL 178. = side of an isoceles triangle). His works: ——. Petri Abélardi opera, ed. Victor Cousin. 2 vols. Paris: (1) H. ibbur ha-meshi.hah ve-ha-tishboret (On Durand, 1849–59. Measuring), a comprehensive introduction to surveying. Translated into Latin (1145?) by Plato of Tivoli, it played an important role in transmitting Arabic geometry and trigonometry to the West. Hebrew text, ed. M. Guttmann, 1912–13, Catalan translation, J. M. Millás Val- licrosa, 1931. (2) Yesode ha-tebunah u-migdal ha-emunah (The Foundations of Reason and the Tower of Faith), an encyclopedia of science; parts are lost. 2

Hebrew text and Spanish translation, J. M. Millás ABRAVANEL, ISAAC Vallicrosa, 1952. (3) Sod ha-῾ibbur (The Secret of Intercalation), a Bibliography study of the Hebrew calendar, written in 1123. Maimonides praised it as by far the best book on Abraham barH. ayya. The Meditation of the Sad Soul. Trans. and the subject (Commentary on Mishnah, ῾Arakhin with an intro. by G. Wigoder. London, 1969. 2:2). Hebrew text, ed. H. Filipowski, 1851. (4) Megillat ha-megalleh (Scroll of the Revealer), Millás Vallicrosa, J. M. Estudios sobre historia de la ciencia an eschatological and astrological work, written española. Barcelona, 1949. 219–62. during the 1120s. According to it, the messianic era might begin by 1136, and the resurrection ——. Nuevos estudios sobre historia de la ciencia española. would take place in 1448 or 1493. Hebrew text, Barcelona, 1969. 183–90. ed. A. Poznanski, 1924; Catalan translation, J. M. Millás Vallicrosa, 1929. Sarfatti, G. B. Mathematical Terminology in Hebrew Scientific (5) Epistle to Rabbi Judah ben Barzillai, a defense of Literature of the Middle Ages (Hebrew). Jerusalem, 1968. astrology, written ca. 1120. Abraham barH. iyya 61–129. had advised a student to delay his wedding for one hour in order to avoid the unpropitious influ- Sirat, C. A History of Jewish Philosophy in the Middle Ages. ence of Mars. Judah ben Barzillai, the eminent Cambridge, 1985. 94–104, 425. talmudist, protested that such deference to astrol- ogy would amount to sorcery and idolatry. The ABRAVANEL, ISAAC (1437–1508) wedding was not delayed, but Abraham wrote this epistle in defense of his view, arguing that Isaac Abravanel was one of the most important Jew- astrological considerations are analogous to ish writers and statesmen of his age. His grandfather medical ones. Hebrew text, ed. A. Z. Schwarz, Samuel was already prominent in the reign of Juan I, 1917. and was contador mayor of Enrique III and treasurer of (6) Hegyon ha-nefesh ha-῾a.subah (The Meditation the queen. He converted to Christianity, however (long of the Sad Soul), a philosophic study of human before the pogroms of 1491), before attaining these nature, discussing the place of human beings in high posts, and took the name Juan Sánchez de Sevilla. the creation, the good life, repentance (includ- Eventually, he determined to return to Judaism, and in ing an analysis of Jonah), and the future world. order to accomplish this had to flee to Portugal with While often described as neo-Platonic, it also some of his sons, while others remained as Christians reflects Aristotelian, Kalamic, and other influ- in Castile. Isaac Abravanel thus grew up in Portugal, ences. Hebrew text, ed. E. Freimann, 1860; G. where he eventually became a wealthy merchant in Wigoder, 1971. English translation, G. Wigoder, Lisbon (together with his father), at least from 1463 on. 1969. Ultimately he became a confidant and financier of the (7) S.urat ha-are.s ve-tabnit ha-shamavim (The Form Duke of Braganza (ca. 1480) and banker to the king of of the Earth and the Figure of the Heavens), a Portugal, Afonso V. The death of that king brought a work on cosmography, written in 1132; part 1 change in attitude toward the Jews under his successor, ofH. okhmat ha-h. izzavon (Science of Astronomy). and in 1483 Abravanel fled to Castile. Hebrew text, Basel 1546 (abridged), Offenbach 1720; Spanish translation, J. M. Millás Vallic- He was able to obtain a minor role as tax farmer, but rosa, 1956. in 1485 his position and influence increased greatly (8) H. eshbon mahalekhot ha-kokhabim (The Calcula- when he was placed in charge of all the taxes of Car- tion of Astral Motions), a textbook on Ptolemaic dinal Pedro González de Mendoza, prelate of Spain astronomy, written in 1136; part 2 ofH. okhmat and canciller mayor of the kingdom. Later, Abravanel ha-h. izzayon. Hebrew text and Spanish transla- became contador mayor of the powerful Iñígo López tion, J. M. Millás Vallirosa, 1959; this edition de Mendoza (it should be mentioned that the Mendoza includes Abraham bar H. iyya’s astronomical family, many of whom were themselves of converso tables, Luh. ot ha-Nasi (The Prince’s Tables). origin, were always intimately involved with Jews). He was able to make substantial loans to the Catholic In addition, Abraham barH. iyya was active in translat- Monarchs, and on one occasion (1491) acted as financial ing scientific works from Arabic into Latin, mostly in agent for the queen. collaboration with Plato of Tivoli. When the edict of expulsion of the Jews came in Warren Zev Harvey 1492, Abravanel apparently used his influence to annul or at least delay it, but to no avail. He chose to be among the minority of Jews who left the land, and like all the other exiles, he was permitted to collect outstanding debts and take with him money and personal property. From Spain he went to Italy, where he again attained important political prominence, and where he did most of his writing. His son Judah (known as León Hebreo) was the author of the famous Dialoghi d’amore. 3

ABRAVANEL, ISAAC been composed for performance in the town of Arras for this festival. This first extant secular drama in French Never a rabbi, Abravanel was a deeply religious contains little plot, presenting mostly a succession of person, with a “fundamentalist” zeal for Jewish tradi- scenes that tease and ridicule forty-nine named male and tion. He wrote various treatises, including important female citizens of Arras. The humor of the play depends commentaries on the Bible, all in Hebrew. In these, on exploiting character traits known to the audience, as and even more in what may be called his “theological” well as proverbs and puns whose full meaning could be treatises, he displayed his opposition to Aristotelian and appreciated only by those familiar with the citizenry of Muslim philosophy, more than to Maimonides, whom Arras. Contemporary documents that contain the names he greatly revered while still disagreeing cautiously with of the characters in the play allow us to date the work some of his views. Contrary to the teachings, rather, of to 1276 or 1277. It provides the earliest example on the the more rationalist followers of Maimonides (Gerson French stage of the ridicule of the medical profession, and others), Abravanel believed literally in creation ex which reached its height with Molièere. The extant nihilo, and in a literal understanding of miracles. Though manuscripts preserve some of the music for the songs he showed himself ultimately opposed to any attempt to included in the play. establish “fundamental principles” of faith in the Bible, since all of it is divine, these two ideas were bound up Closely related to the pastourelle, the Jeu de Robin et with his understanding of God as omnipotent. Unlike Marion (780 octosyllabic lines) dramatizes the encoun- Maimonides, he believed that man is the “final cause,” ter of a shepherdess and a knight on a spring morning. or purpose, of the Creation, and that man’s purpose is When his advances are rebuffed, the knight kidnaps the the contemplation of God (perhaps under scholastic young girl and carries her away on his horse after beat- influence). Again unlike Maimonides, he was also a ing her friend Robin. However, Marion is soon released believer in astrology. unharmed, and friends arrive to sing, dance, eat, and play games. Spoken dialogue alternates with singing. When His political attitudes, while not systematic enough first presented in Arras, the play was preceded by a short to be called (as they have been) a “political philosophy,” dramatic prologue, in which a pilgrim tells of his travels are of interest. in Italy and says that everywhere he went he heard about a talented, gracious, and noble clerk, native of Arras, Abravanel played an important role in the messianic loved and honored by the count of Artois because of expectations of the generation of the exiles, and had a his poetic and musical talent. The pilgrim states that he lasting influence on Jewish thought, and no less on later visited Adam’s tomb the year before and sings two of Christian thinkers. Adam’s songs as examples of his talent. It is believed that the Panels of St. Vincent of the In addition to the plays, Adam wrote thirty-six Portuguese artist Nuño Gonçalves (ca. 1481) present chansons, seventeen jeux-partis, sixteen rondeaux, an actual portrait of Abravanel, one of only two known five motets, a congé, and the first nineteen laisses of an portraits of a medieval Spanish Jew. epic poem, the Roi de Sicile. Fifteen of the seventeen jeux-partis by Adam were composed with Jehan Bretel, See also Maimonides who alludes to Adam’s superior education, his youth, and his loves. Before 1271, the date of Bretel’s death, Further Reading Adam was already well enough known to write jeux- partis with the prince of the Puy. While his chansons Netanyahu, B. Don Isaac Abravanel. Philadelphia, 1972. written in the tradition of the Provençal love lyric dwell Kellner, M. Gersonides and his Cultural Despisers: Arama and on the suffering endured patiently by a lover whose lady appears indifferent to him, there is no reason to believe Abravanel. Charlottesville, Va. 1976. that they were based on true feelings. Gomes, P. A. Filosofia hebraico-portuguesa. Porto, 1981. Although Adam lived and wrote in Picardy for much Norman Roth of his life, the language of his songs reflects relatively few traits of the Picard dialect, whereas the speech of ADAM DE LA HALLE the characters in his plays relies more heavily on dialect (ca. 1240–ca. 1285) and probably resembles the language used in Arras in the 13th century. Dramatist and poet. Also called “Adam le Bossu” or “le Bossu d’Arras” (bossu ‘awkward’ or ‘crippled’), In 1276 or 1277, Adam wrote his Congé (farewell Adam de la Halle lived and wrote in Arras during the poem), one of three such poems composed by trouvères last third of the 13th century. His modern reputation is (the others are by Jehan Bodel d’Arras and Baude based primarily on two plays: a satiric drama, the Jeu de Fastoul). In 156 lines divided into strophes of twelve la feuillée (1,099 octosyllabic lines), and a work often octosyllabic verses, Adam takes leave for Paris to referred to as a comic opera, the Jeu de Robin et Marion. Since feuillée has been interpreted to mean the shelter of branches built to house the reliquary of Notre Dame at Pentecost, the Jeu de la feuillée is thought to have 4

continue his studies; he expresses his gratitude, good ADAM OF BREMEN wishes, and regrets to the people of Arras. His departure is by choice and not due to disease, as with the other embedded in his history and its extensive marginalia. two congés. In Feuillée, he also mentions his imminent These suggest that Adam was born in Franconia and departure for Paris, though it is not possible to know if was probably trained in the cathedral school of either he ever actually went. Bamberg or Würzburg. In 1066/1067 he joined the church of Bremen, having been recruited by the mercu- During his lifetime, Adam’s fame stemmed equally rial and ambitious Archbishop Adalbert (1043–1072), from his musical and poetic skills. Many of his melodies who probably saw in him a means to improve the literary and lyrics have been preserved in versions that often reputation of his see. By 1069, Adam was in charge of resemble each other more closely than is normally the the cathedral school at Bremen, appearing in a docu- case with trouvère compositions, implying perhaps ment as magister scolarum (master of learning). Soon that they may have been copied from one model even thereafter, Adam began working on his Gesta. In his though such a model has not survived. In addition to search for information on the history of his church and the typical songs for one voice, Adam also wrote music its privileges, he drew upon—often quite critically—a for five motets for three voices, fourteen rondeaux, and wide range of sources including Carolingian hagiogra- two other refrain songs, suggesting that he probably phy, diplomata, papal letters, and the accounts of eye- knew how to read and write music, a rare phenomenon witnesses such as King Sven II Estridsen of Denmark, among the trouvères. one of Adam’s principal informants on the peoples of and Christian missions to Scandinavia. Completed just Even though he must be considered one of the most after Adalbert’s death (1072), the first “edition” of the versatile poets and composers of his time, no document history (1075/1076) was dedicated to Adalbert’s suc- survives that dates any event in the life of this prolific cessor Liemar (1072–1101). Adam continued to revise artist. However, Baude Fastoul, another trouvère of and augment his history in marginalia until his death Arras, mentions him in a work dated 1272. Adam died in the early 1080s. between January 7,1285, the date of the death of Charles of Anjou, for whom Adam began to compose Le Roi de In the first two of the four books comprising his work, Sicile, and before February 2, 1289, the date on which Adam traced the history of the church of Hamburg-Bre- the copyist Jean Madot, upon finishing a transcription of men from its foundation in the eighth century until 1043, the Roman de Troie, boasts of being the nephew of Adam attentively documenting the vicissitudes of its wealth le Bossu, who had died recently far from Arras. and power in the region and the role played by its bish- ops in the politics of the German Reich. In book 3, Adam Further Reading turned to the pontificate of Bishop Adalbert and rendered a portrait of his late patron that is remarkable for its Adam de la Halle. CEuvres complètes du trouvère Adam de la subtle portrayal of this tragic, complex man; indeed, Halle: poésies et musique, ed. Edmond de Coussemaker. Paris: it is recognized as a milestone in medieval biography. A. Durand et Pedone-Lauriel, 1872. Having repeatedly highlighted his church’s leading role in the conversion of the northern peoples to Christi- ——. Le jeu de la feuillée, ed. Ernest Langlois. Paris: Champion, anity, Adam devoted the whole of book 4 to detailed 1965. descriptions of the geography, people, and customs of the Scandinavian lands as well as the progress of mis- ––––. Le jeu de Robin et Marion suivi du jeu du Pélerin, ed. sionary efforts in those areas. Although perhaps intended Ernest Langlois. Paris: Champion, 1965. to aid and inspire later missionaries, Adam’s relatively balanced account of these non-Christian peoples makes ––––. Le jeu de la feuillée and Le jeu de Robin et de Marion, in his work a monument of medieval geographical writing Medieval French Plays, trans. Richard Axton and John Ste- and one of the most important sources of information vens. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1971, pp. 205–302. concerning pre-Christian Scandinavia. ––––. The Chansons of Adam de la Halle, ed. John Henry Mar- Further Reading shall. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1971. Adam of Bremen. History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bre- ––––. The Lyrics and Melodies of Adam de la Halle, ed. and men, trans. F. J. Tschan. New York: Columbia University trans. Deborah H. Nelson; music ed. Hendrik van der Werf. Press, 1959. New York: Garland, 1985. ——. Magistri Adam Bremensis Gesta Hammaburgensis Eccle- Deborah H. Nelson siae Pontificum, ed. B. Schmeidler. Monumenta Germaniae istorica. Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum 2. Hannover: ADAM OF BREMEN Hahn, 1917. (fl. 2nd half of the 11th c.) Misch, Georg. Geschichte der Autobiographie, vol. 3, pt. 1. Frank- Author of the Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae Pontifi- furt am Main: G. Schulte-Bulmke, 1959, pp. 168–214. cum (History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen), Adam of Bremen is widely regarded as one of the finest historians of the Early Middle Ages, yet little is known about the man himself beyond the hints and allusions 5

ADAM OF BREMEN skills as a prose stylist were undoubtedly of secondary importance to Ælfric, whose central and abiding literary Theuerkauf, G. “Die Hamburgische Kirchengeschichte Adams concern (as John Pope has noted) was the instruction von Bremen. Gesellschaftsformen und Weltbilder im elften of the adult laity, most of whom knew no Latin, in the Jahrhundert.” In Historiographia Mediaevalis . . . Festschrift Christian faith. für Franz-Josef Schmale, ed. Dieter Berg and Hans-Werner Goetz. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1988, Ælfric’s seven chief works—two volumes of Catholic pp. 118–137. Homilies or Sermones catholici, two additional sets of homilies based in part on his previous writings, William North De temporibus anni, the Grammar, and the lives of Saints—form a reasonably complete educational pro- ÆLFRIC (ca. 945–ca. 1015) gram aimed at providing the spiritual instruction Ælfric deemed necessary for salvation. His literary canon Abbot of Eynsham, sometimes called “Grammaticus” builds upon the program of learning instituted by King (“the grammarian”), the greatest writer of English prose Alfred a century earlier but differs from that program before the Norman Conquest and the leading scholar of by virtue of its more tightly focused spiritual emphasis, his day. His contributions to the literary and religious its greater comprehensiveness, and its stricter accuracy life of 10th-century England mirror the achievements of in rendering Latin texts. his more illustrious predecessors from the 8th and 9th centuries, Bede and King Alfred the Great. Like Bede, Ælfric reveals the impetus for his literary career by whom he often consulted as a source, Ælfric produced quoting in the preface to his first major work Christ’s a substantial body of homiletic and hagiographic writ- great commission to his disciples “to instruct and teach ings. But following the example of King Alfred, Ælfric all people the things that he himself had taught them” broke away from Latin, the traditional language of the (Matt. 28:19–20); Ælfric apparently patterned his life church, and wrote primarily in English in order to reach and writings not only upon this injunction but also upon a wider audience. the more dire scriptural text he cites in the same breath, namely that the Lord’s servants must themselves face There seems little reason to doubt Ælfric’s largely perdition if they fail to warn and exhort the unrighteous unnoticed autobiographical statement in his Grammar (Ezek. 33:8). This divine mandate lends to Ælfric’s liter- that he studied under and was ordained by Dunstan, ary activities a spirit of personal mission and urgency, a key figure in the Benedictine Reform who became and this same spirit informs the inchoate program of archbishop of Canterbury in 960 and who is widely instruction promulgated by King Alfred, which Ælfric credited with restoring monastic life after its virtual both emulates and augments in his own writings. Ælfric demise by the middle of the 10th century (“If you were borrows from King Alfred the revolutionary idea of us- to say, ‘Who taught you?’ I would say ‘Dunstan.’ ‘Who ing the vernacular to broaden the reach of instruction ordained you?’ ‘He ordained me.’”). If this statement is to “all people,” which in practice meant reaching out to true, Ælfric’s date of birth would almost certainly have the uneducated majority of his countrymen who knew to be placed some ten years earlier than the date of 955 no Latin. given in virtually all other standard biographical refer- ences. No doubt surrounds Ælfric’s later studies with Yet Ælfric—traditional, conservative, and orthodox another leading figure of monastic reform, Æthelwold, by temperament—proved a somewhat reluctant revolu- at the Benedictine monastery at Winchester. In 987, tionary. He persistently worried about the appropriate- three years after Æthelwold’s death, Ælfric obtained ness of making Latin texts generally available to the a position as monk and masspriest at Cernel Abbey in laity, who might, for example, misconstrue scripture what is now Cerne Abbas, Dorset. Within a few years and believe that they might have four wives just as the he had achieved a reputation as the preeminent literary patriarch Jacob did. Ælfric vowed on several occasions figure of the Benedictine revival. that he would cease from translating lest the pearls of Christ fall into disrespect, yet at the end of his career At Cernel Ælfric developed a remarkable and in- he apparently accepted the usefulness of his writings novative “rhythmical prose” style, admirably suited and, far from retracting them, conveniently enumer- for oral delivery, that resembles OE verse in its use of ated them and in effect canonized them in the Letter paired phrases linked by alliteration but differs from it in to Sigeweard. matters of tone, style, diction, and metrical constraints. Ælfric avoids, for example, the use of the kenning, In addition to following Alfred’s lead in translating, kend heiti, ókend heiti, and other metaphoric state- Ælfric turned to other sources of inspiration, such as ments commonly associated with OE heroic poetry and Augustine’s De catechizandis rudibus and De doctrina strives instead for “ordinary English speech” (usitatam christiana, for more detailed guidance in establishing the Anglicam sermocinationem). Hickes praised Ælfric’s range of texts and the survey of doctrine needed to fulfill prose as purus, suavis, et regularis (“pure, smooth, the catechetical dimensions of Christ’s commission to and orderly”), and W.P. Ker hailed Ælfric as “the great master of prose in all its forms.” Yet his considerable 6